1 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.! 



I'l^'-^P* I^fotw |o # 



I UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. ^ 



SECOND BOOK 

ON 

ANALYTIC 

Amtomy, Physiology and Hygiene 

HUMAN AND COMPAEATIVE. 

FOR ACADEMIES, GRAMMAR SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. 

BY CALVIN CUTTER, A.M., M.D., 

Author of " New Asalttic Anatomy, Phtsiologt axd Hygiene," and " Ociline 
Anatomical Charts, Human and Comparative." 



WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PHILADELPHIA 

J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. 

I87I. 



J^ 



>^ 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by 

CALVIN CUTTER, A.M., M.D., 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at "Washington. 



Copyright also secured in Great Britain and entered at Stationers' 
Hall, London, and right of Translation reserved. 



tlPPINCOTT'S PRESS, 



~ TO THE MEMORY OF 

CARKIE ELIZA CUTTER, 

WHO ACCOMPANIED THE TWENTY-FIRST REGIMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS 
VOLUNTEER INFANTRY IN THE " BURNSIDE EXPEDITION" TO 
NORTH CAROLINA, AND DIED THERE OF CAMP FEYER, 
CONTRACTED WHILE DISCHARGING THE SELF- 
SACRIFICING DUTY OF A NURSE, 

THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED BY HER 

FATHER AND THE AUTHOR. 



TO TEACHERS. 



In schools that have the term limited to eight or ten 
weeks, the Histology, the Chemistry or the Comparative 
Anatomy may be severally omitted (though with detri- 
ment to the pupil), and the remaining sections will be 
adapted to each other. 

The different sections, as far as possible, should be 
made object lessons, either by the use of the correspond- 
ing parts of animals or outline charts, as objects or things 
make deeper impressions than mere words. 

Technical words have not been avoided, for in the in- 
vestigation of any science the learner will necessarily meet 
with new terms, and it is best to use those which express 
the ideas that are peculiar to the study with terseness and 
the least circumlocution. 



PREFACE. 



This work is intended for classes in academies and 
grammar-schools. The leading aim has been to so limit 
its size as to finish it in a term of from ten to fourteen 
weeks. To accomplish this end, the '^ Xew Analytic 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, Human and Com- 
parative, by Calvin Cutter, A. ]\I., M. D.,'^ has been fol- 
lowed in arrangement, in illustration and in general 
scope. Primarily, the work is designed for the class-room, 
but the brief suggestions relative to Minor Surgery and 
the Care of the Sick adapt it for general use in families. 

The questions given at the close of each chapter may 
be used at the pleasure of the instructor. The first form 
educes a thorough analysis of each paragraph. The 
second is unijic, so that a blended investigation of such 
paragraphs as agree in structure, function or hygiene may 
form analytic lessons or reviews. The third form is 
topical, with diagrams and illustrations, to secure a 
synthetic review of each chapter and a summary of the 
work. 

Care has been taken to adapt the work to Outline 
Anatomical Charts, Human and Comparative, which are 
as necessary an accompaniment as outline maps in modern 
Geography. 



8 PEEFACE. 

I am under special obligations to Isaac Walker, 
A.M., Principal of the High School, Ware, Mass., not 
only for the Analytic, the Unific and the Synthetic 
questions of the work, but for the critical examination of 
each Paragraph, Section, Chapter and Division of the 
"New Analytic Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, 
Human and Comparative," in his class-room. 

Calvin Cutter. 

Warren, Mass., July, 1871. 



ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. 



DIVISION I. 

SECT. CHAPTER L— GENERAL REMARKS. p^^j-g 

1. The Three Kingdoms of Nature Compared 11-13 

CHAPTER II.— GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 

2. Cells 14-16 

3. Tissues 17-22 

4. Membranes 22-25 

CHAPTER III.— GENERAL CHEMISTRY. 

5. Solids and Fluids 26-30 

DIVISION II. 
MO TORY APPARATUS. 
CHAPTER IV.— THE BONES. 

6. Anatomy of the Bones .*. 35-44 

7. Histology " " 44-49 

8. Chemistry " " 49 

9. Physiology " " 49-53 

10. Hygiene " " 53-56 

11. Comparative Osteology 57-66 

CHAPTER v.— THE MUSCLES. 

12. Anatomy of the Muscles 71-75 

13. Histology " " 75-78 

14. Chemistry " " 78,79 

15. Physiology " " 79-83 

16. Hygiene " " 84-89 

17. Comparative Myology 89-93 



DIVISION III. 

NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 

CHAPTER VI.— THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

18. Anatomy of the Digestive Organs 97-103 

19. Histology " " " 104-108 

20. Chemistry " " " 108-110 

21. Physiology " " " 110-112 

22. Hygiene " " " 112-120 

23. Comparative Splanchnology 120-126 

A* 9 



10 ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. 

SECT. CHAPTER VII.— ABSORPTION. p^e^g 

24. Anatomy of the Absorbents 131-133 

25. Histology " " 133,134 

26. Chemistry " " 134,135 

27. Physiology " " 135-137 

28. Hygiene " " 137 

CHAPTER VIII.— THE CIRCULATION. 

29. The Blood 141-146 

30. Anatomy of the Circulatory Organs 147-150 

31. Histology " " " 150,151 

32. Chemistry " " " 151 

33. Physiology " " " 151-155 

34. Hygiene " " " 155,156 

35. Comparative Angiology 156-160 

CHAPTER IX.— ASSIMILATION. 

36. Assimilation, General and Special 164-167 

CHAPTER X.— THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 

37. Anatomy of the Respiratory and Vocal Organs 169-172 

38. Histology " " " " 172-174 

39. Chemistry " " " " 174-176 

40. Physiology " " " " 176-181 

41. Hygiene " " " " 181-187 

42. Comparative Pneumonology 187-191 



DIVISION IV. 

SENSORIAL APPARATUS. 

CHAPTER XL— NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

43. Anatomy of the Nervous System 197-209 

44. Histology " " " 210-213 

45. Physiology " " " 21.3-222 

46. Hygiene " " " 222-232 

47. Comparative Neurology , 232-237 

CHAPTER XII.— THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 

48. Anatomy of the Organs of Special Sense 241-258 

49. Physiology '• " " " 258-265 

50. Hygiene " " " " 266-273 

APPENDIX. 

CHAPTER XIIL 

Caee op the Sick 279-284 

Treatment of Wounds, of Burns, of Asphyxia 284-288 

Poisons and their Antidotes 288-291 

Glossary 295-305 

Index 307-310 

For Treatment of Wounds, page 284. For Recovery of Drowned Persons, page 287. 
For Treatment of Bums, page 286. For Treatment of Frost-Bite, page 287. 



Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 



DIVISION I. 

OUTLINE PKINCIPLES. 



CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

I 1. The Three Kingdoms of Nature Compared. — Essential 
Distinctions between the Mineral, Vegetable and Animal- Kingdoms. 
Nature of the Life-force. Vitalized and Non- Vitalized Bodies com- 
pared. Plants and Animals compared. Definition of Organs — Of 
Apparatus — Of Anatomy — Of Physiology — Of Hygiene — Of Histol- 
ogy — Of Chemistry. 

1. "Stones grow; Plants grow and live; Animals grow, 
live and feel," was the Linnsean distinction between the three 
great kingdoms of Nature. Though imperfect, it is still sug- 
gestive of the boundaries of each division. The Mineral 
kingdom includes all things naturally destitute of life ; the 
Vegetable kingdom, all organizations having a certain type of 
life, but no power to feel or to will ; the Animal kingdom, 
those possessing a higher type of life and the powers of sensa- 
tion and voluntary motion. 

2. Inorganic or Mineral bodies are made up of atoms 
combined and arranged according to certain mechanical and 
chemical laws. ■ Organic or Vegetable and Animal bodies 
are combinations of like atoms, according to the same laws, 
controlled by Vitality or the Life-force. Plants have a vege- 
table vitality — animals an animal vitality. Of the real charac- 



12 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

ter of this life-force we know nothing. We are at liberty to 
examine her products, but the mighty principle upon which 
they are wrought she holds fast as a secret unrevealable to us 
with our present limitations. 

3. Among the Distinctions between Oeganized or Vital- 
ized, and Unorganized or Non- Vitalized bodies, are the 
following : 1st, An Organized body consists of an assemblage 
of parts called organs, having a mutual relation to, and de- 
pendence upon, each other ; these taken together constitute 
an individual, a being; therefore the parts when separated 
are incomplete, as in a divided plant. Not so with the Un- 
organized body : each fragment of a rock possesses all the essen- 
tial characteristics of the original mass. 2d, Organized bodies, 
being subject to constant waste from vitalized activities, de- 
mand nourishment ; Unorganized bodies, being permanent in 
their nature, require no food. 3d, Organized bodies grow by 
means of particles of matter conveyed to their interior and 
there assimilated ; Unorganized bodies increase in size by 
simple layers upon the exterior : the former have a limit in 
size ; the latter have no natural limit. 4th, Organized bodies 
have their period of duration : decay and death await every 
living animal and vegetable; but, from the nature of the 
Inorganic world, we speak of the mountains as everlasting. 
5th, Organized bodies have their particles arranged in lines 
generally more or less curved, with varying angles, as in ani- 
mals and plants ; Unorganized^odAQ^ have their lines straight, 
with angles mathematically exact, as in the crystal of com- 
mon salt. 6th, Organized bodies reproduce themselves, each 
species after its own kind ; Unorganized bodies have no such 
power of reproduction. 

4. The Distinctions between Animals and Plants are im- 
portant. Animals take in oxygen and give out carbonic acid 
gas ; Plants take in carbonic acid gas and give out oxygen. 
Animals subsist upon the products of the animal and vege- 
table kingdoms ; Plants, upon those of the mineral kingdom. 
Animals possess the power of sensation and voluntary motion ; 
Plants, neither. These distinctions are obvious and definite 



GENERAL REMARKS. 13 

in the higlier grades, but in the descending scale we recog- 
nize a gradual approach of plants and animals to each other, 
and likewise to the mineral kingdom ; so that in the lower 
forms of life all perceptible traces of organization disappear, 
and, like converging radii, the three kingdoms of Nature 
blend in one common centre. 

5. An organized body consists of parts called Or'gans. 
A collection of organs so arranged that their combined 
actions shall produce a given result is called an Appara'tus. 
The definite, peculiar use of an organ or apparatus is called 
its Function : Example. — The digestive apparatus consists of 
the organs — teeth, stomach, liver, etc. — whose combined func- 
tions result in the digestion of food. 

The description of the form and position of these organs 
is called Anat'omy;* the description of their functions, 
Physiol'ogy ; t the examination of the conditions most 
favorable to their health, Hy'giene. J 

6. The organs are composed of a variety of structures, 
called Tissues, which are themselves composed of Cells. The, 
description of the form, color, constituents and origin of 
these tissues and cells, or their minute anatomy, is called 
Histol'ogy;§ the science which treats of their ultimate ele- 
ments is called Chem'istry. || 

* Gr., ana, through, and tome, a cutting, 
f Gr., phusis, nature, and logos, a discourse. 
f Gr., hugieinon, health. 
§ Gr., histos, a web, and logos, a discourse. 
II Ar., kimia, hidden art. 



CHAPTER II. 

GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 

I 3. Cells. — Unity of Plan exhibited in Plants and Animals. Simple 
Cells. Adaptation to Different Offices. Modes of Multiplication. 

7. Wherever we find the work of the Infinite, there 
we find Unity of Flan. Whatever the extent of the applica- 
tions of this plan, whatever its modifications, there is still 
more or less apparent the distinct central idea. Amid the 
seemingly great diversity of substances in plants and ani- 
mals, there appears a beautiful and remarkable exhibit of 
this Unity. 

8. Protoplasm* is the formal basis of all living bodies. 
Animal Pro'to-plasm,, or Blas-tema, f as it is often called, is 
an albuminous fluid, generally regarded as identical with the 
liquor sanguinis, or fluid portion of the blood, in which the 
red corpuscles are suspended. Floating in this protoplasm 
are numerous minute spheroidal cells, and an infinitude of 
smaller bodies having the appearance of dots, called granules. 
From this organizable fluid every part of living beings is 
formed ; here is Unity of Substance. 

9. The simple Nucleated cell is the earliest orga'Q.ic form of 
every living thing, and increase of size is but an increase of 
the number of cells. There are sundry very low animals, 
each of which is structurally a nucleated cell, a colorless 
blood-corpuscle, leading an independent life ; a step higher 
come those which are little more than aggregations of similar 
cells ; and at length, as the vital functions become more and 
more differentiated, appear those with cells variously modi- 
fied, forming increasingly well-defined and complicated organs, 
till they seem to reach perfection in man. 

* Gr., protos, finst, and plasma, formed. f Gr., hlastos, a germ. 

14 



GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 15 

10. In the plant-world we find the same plan pursued ; 
under the microscope, the vegetable and the animal cell 
appear essentially the same, but they are by no means iden- 
tical. In examining the nucle'oli of animal cells, little cir- 
cular bodies dart across the field of view. These seem to 
possess the power of voluntary movement ; and, had we the 
requisite refinement of sight, we should doubtless be able to 
classify even these minute bodies as accurately as we now do 
the fully-developed animal. In the vegetable cell these are 
never seen. It appears, then, that the lowest and the highest 
organism — the fungus and man — have, in their earliest de- 
velopment, a unity of form of which the type is the simple 

cell. 

Fig. 1. 




1 2 

Fig. 1. An Ideal Ckll. — 1, Cell, with its wall, protoplasm, nucleus and its nucleolus. 
2, The same divided into two. 3, The same divided into four cells. 4, The same divided 
into many cells. The dark portion, the protoplasm; the white spot, the nucleus; the 
inner small circle, the nucleolus. Magnified. 

11. A Simple Cell consists of a delicate sac containing 
protoplasm, in which is another very minute sac, called the 
nu'cleus, which contains yet another sac — the nucleolus or 
little nucleus. Very minute particles or granules are also 
seen. A good example of a simple animal cell on a large 
scale is an egg : the lining of the shell is the cell-wall or sac ; 
the white is the contained protoplasm ; the yolk is the nu- 
cleus; and its germ-spot is the nucleolus. (Figs. 1, 2.) 

12. Cells in the course of their development are subject to 
numberless modifications — the animal cell, to subserve various 
purposes in the animal economy ; the vegetable cell, in the 
vegetable economy. As if under the immediate control of 
intelligence, they select each its own appropriate substance, 
rejecting all else. One set of cells has for its ofiice the pro- 
duction of motion ; another set is for the purpose of secre- 



16 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



tion ; anotlier, for assimilation ; another, for absorption ; still 
another, for reproduction ; and so on, through all the dis- 
similar offices of the animal economy, 

13. Cells multiply in three ways : 1st, A cell may elongate, 
contracting in the middle like an hour-glass or dumb-bell, by 
the infolding of the cell-wall, till a complete division is made 
and two cells are formed, each with its own share of the 
original nucleus ; the new cells divide in a similar manner, 
and like divisions are repeated indefinitely ; 2d, Another 
form of multiplication is by the division of the nucleus 
vjithin the cell; each part appropriates a portion of the fluid, 
and at length vesicles are formed, the old cell-wall breaks, 
and the vesicles develop into perfect cells ; and 3d, Cells are 
sometimes developed de novo from the protoplasm, which 
contains nuclei and granules. (Figs. 1, 2, 3.) 

Fig. 3. 
Fig. 2. 





Fig. 2. Process of Multiplication of Cells. — 1, Simple cartilage cell from the em- 
bryo. 2, Increase of cartilage cells by diyision of the primary cell. 3, 4, Groups of car- 
tilage cells, from an adult articular cartilage. Magnified. 

Fig. 3 exhibits Groups of Cartilage Cells imbedded in a homogeneous matrice, 
1, Toward the exterior. 2. Toward the interior surface. Highly magnified. 



14. Cells have their period of growth, of perfection and 
of decay. While the vital force directs and controls the 
chemical and mechanical agencies, they tend to preserve and 
build up the system ; but when the vital powers yield, they 
tend to its decay, and, ''as if they were the grave-diggers 
of Nature, fulfill the old motto — ' Earth to earth and dust 
to dust.' " 



GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 



17 



I 3. Primary Tissues. —Fi&rows Tissue — Areolar— Cartilaginous- 
Adipose— Muscular—Sclerous— Tubular— Nervous. 

15. By the various aggregations and transformations of 
cells the different tissues of the body are formed, and their 
individual characters depend upon the peculiar selecting 
power of these cells. 

16. The Primary Tissues are reducible to the following : 
the Fi'brous, the Are'olar and the Cartilag'inous, which, col- 
lectively, form the Conned'ive tissues ; and the Ad'ipose, the 
Musc'ular, the Sck'rous, the Tulhular and the Ner'vous tissues. 





Fig. 4. Fibrous Tissue. — 1, Portion of tendon, exhibiting its composition of prismatic 
bundles of fibrous tissue, the filaments all parallel to one another. 2, A few bundles 
drawn from the others, exhibiting their union by delicate crossing filaments of con- 
nective tissue. 3, One of the varieties of fibrous tissue. 4, A single bundle, more highly 
magnified, with a portion (5) of the filaments fretted out. 

Fig. 5. Portion of Connective Tissue, from the axilla, exhibiting its composition of 
bundles and filaments of fibrous tissue crossing in every direction. The rounded bodies 
represent a single row and a portion of sm.all groups of fat cells. Magnified. 

17. The Fibrous form of connective tissue is composed 
of minute filaments arranged in parallel and somewhat wavy 
bundles, marked with faint cross-waves. It is strong, un- 
yielding and glistening. The fibrous tissue has two distinct 
forms — the White Fibrous and the Yellow Fibrous. 

18. The White Fibrous tissue is formed of white, glisten- 
ing, inelastic bands, having longitudinal creasings, but not 
admitting of separation into filaments of determinate size. 
This tissue, by long boiling, is entirely resolved into Gel'atine, 

2* B 



18 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

The white fibrous tissue is found under three forms : Mem'- 
brane,"^ Lig'amentf and Ten' don. "l 

19. The Yellow Fibrous tissue is composed of yellow 
elastic bands separable into their component filaments. It 
is called the Elas'tie tissue, elasticity being its chief charac- 
teristic. It does not gelatinize by boiling. It is found in 
the middle coat of the arteries, in the vocal cords, between 
the vertebrae, and in many other places where elasticity is 
needed. (Figs. 4, 5.) 

Observation. — In rhenmatism the connective white fibrous tissue is 
the part chiefly affected; hence, the large joints and the loins, where 
this tissue is most abundant, sufler most. Where there is predisposition 
to rheumatism, the tendency to it may be lessened and attacks relieved 
by increasing the amount of clothing over the part affected. 

20. The Areolar form of connective tissue consists of 
bands of the fibrous, both of the white and yellow, which 
interweave in every direction, leaving open spaces between, 
called cells; hence this tissue is sometimes called Cel'lular. 
These spaces communicate through the body, and contain a 
fluid resembling the serum of the blood. Although the con- 
nective areolar tissue enters into the composition of all organs, 
it never loses its individuality. In the nerves and muscles it 
shares neither the sensibility of the one nor the contractility 
of the other. (Figs. 5, 6.) 

Observation. — The swelling of the feet so often seen in feeble persons 
shows the peculiarity of this tissue, which allows the fluid to pass from 
part to part and accumulate in the lowest portion of the body, while a 
recumbent position restores the original shape. Great excess of the 
fluid produces general dropsy. The free communication between all 
parts of this tissue is still more remarkable in regard to air. Sometimes, 
when an accidental opening has been made fi'om the air-cells of the 
lungs into the adjacent tissue, the air in respiration penetrates every 
part of the surrounding tissue, and even of the entire body, till inflation 
endangers life from suffocation. Butchers often avail themselves of this 
fact, inflating their meat to give it a fat appearance. 

21. Cartilaginous tissue consists of a solid mat'rice, ap- 

* Lat., membrana, a web. f Lat., ligo, to tie or bind. 

% Gr., teino^ to stretch. 



GEI^^EEAL HISTOLOGY. 



19 



parently homogeneous in structure, resembling ground glass. 
In this are imbedded nucleated cells, sometimes arranged 
simply, but usually in groups. It has no perceptible nerves 
nor blood-vessels. Cartilage is elastic and flexible, but in- 
extensible — qualities admirably essential to its use in the 
formation of the joints and in giving to other organs form 
and strength without too much rigidity. This tissue consti- 
tutes the articular cartilages, the cartilage of the ribs, of the 
larynx (except the epiglottis), of the trachea and its divisions, 
and of the nose. The bones usually originate in cartilage, 
which disappears as bony matter is deposited ; such cartilage 
is called temporary, while that which continues till later years 
is called permanent. (Fig. 3.) 

Fig. 6. Fig. 7. 





Fig. 6. Adipose Tissue, with groups of fat vescicles contained in the meshes of ( on- 
nective tissue. 

Fig. 7. Muscular Tissue.— 1, Two portions of a muscular fasciculus. 2, Cut extremities 
of the fibres, showing their prismatic form. 3, Delicate sheath, composed of obliquely- 
crossing filaments of fibrous tissue. 4, The fibres of the commencing tendons. Partly 
a diagram. 

22. Adipose tissue has the peculiarity of not being essen- 
tial to the constitution of any organ. It is composed of deli- 
cate aggregated cells of nearly spheroidal form, containing a 



20 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



substance called fat. It is found in the interspaces of areolar 
tissue beneath the skin, and also around the heart and kid- 
neys, while none is ever found within the skull, the lungs 
and the eyelids, where its presence would interfere with their 
several ftinctions. Fat accumulates more readily than other 
matter, and is the earliest removed in disease. It is a store- 
house of nutriment always ready for use and a non-conductor 
of heat; it also gives roundness and beauty to the form. 

Fig. 8. Fig. 9. 





Fig. 8 (Wagner). A Piece of the Web of a Frog's Foot, showing the fine capillary 
network connecting the termination of the arteries with the commencement of the veins. 

Fig. 9 (Allen Thomson). Minute Piece of tde Margin of the Frog's Web, showing 
the ultimate capillaries, connecting the end of a small artery with the beginning of a 
minute vein. The oval blood-corpuscles, with nuclei, are seen in these vessels, and the 
arrows entering and passing out of the artery and vein indicate the course of the blood- 
current. Magnified about thirty diameters. 

23. Muscular tissue is composed of fibres, which are 
themselves composed of minute fibres, called flhrillce or fila- 
ments. This tissue has for its peculiar characteristic con- 
tradility, and is the instrument upon which the sensible 
motions of the body depend. It is a good conductor of elec- 
tricity, and very sensitive to that agent. It has within itself 
constant electrical currents, called, collectively, the muscular 
current. (Fig. 7.) 

24. Sclerous tissue is found in the bones and teeth. Its 
composition and arrangement vary at difierent periods of 
life. 

25. Tubular tissue consists of a network of minute tubes, 



GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 



21 



called cap'illary'^ vessels. These vessels connect the terminal 
extremities of the arteries with the commencement of the 
veins, but are otherwise closed, and never communicate ex- 
cept by imbibition with the structures through which they 
pass. Their walls are composed of exceedingly thin, trans- 
parent, structureless membrane containing scattered nuclei. 
They vary in size, being largest in the bones and smallest in 
the brain and in the lungs. This tissue is found in all parts 
of the body, excepting the substance of the teeth, the cartilage 
of the joints, the transparent part of the eye, the epitlie'lial 
tissue, the hair and the nails, (Figs. 8, 9.) 

26. The Neevous 
tissue is distinguish- 
ed from all other 
tissues by its serm- 
hility. Like the mus- 
cular tissue, it has 
constant electrical 
currents. It forms 
the essential sub- 
stance of the brain, 
spinal cord and 
nerves. This tissue 
contains three dis- 
tinct microscopical 
elements — Nerve- 
Cells or Ganglionie Corpuscles; 
and White or Tubular fibres. 

27. The Ganglionic Corpuscles are cell-bodies contain- 
ing pulpy matter, with one or more nuclei surrounding 
colored granules. These cells vary in shape, being roundish, 
pear-shaped or branched in a caudate or stellate manner, 
these offsets being continuous with the cell-wall and its con- 
tents, and often entering another cell and connecting the 
two. These nerve-cells are found in the brain, spinal cord 




Fig. 10 (Kolliker and Hannover). 1, Nucleated cells 
from a sympathetic ganglion. 2, Branched or stellate 
cells from the gray substance of the spinal cord. 3, 
Branched cells from the medulla oblongata. 4, Simple 
and branched cells from the convolutions of the brain. 
5, A large cell from the gray substance of the brain. 
Magnified one hundred diameters. 



Gray or Gelatinous fibres; 



* Lat., capillus, a hair. 



22 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

and ganglia, and at the extremities of the nerves of sight and 
hearing. (Fig. 10.) 

28. The Gray or Gelatinous fibres are soft and granular, 
with no distinct medullary sheath. They contain many dark 
nuclei, and are most abundant in the sympathetic ganglia 
and its branches. 

29. The White or Tubular fibres are microscopic tubes. 
The walls are structureless membrane enclosing a layer of 
medullated matter resembling fluid fat, which acts as a sheath ; 
within this is a firmer part or core, called the band-axis or 
axis cylinder : this is albuminous. 

The gray substance is most abundant in the outer part of 
the brain, and the white in the inner ; but the two intermix 
more or less in every part of the nervous system. 

^ 4. Membranes. — Basement Membrane. Epithelium. Serous Mem- 
brane. Synovial Membrane. 

30. Basement Membrane is an exceedingly thin, deli- 
cate, structureless layer of protoplasm or blastema, resem- 
bling, under the microscope, a film of transparent gelatine. 
Upon it, in various parts of the body, are imbedded minute 
epithelial cells. The membrane formed by these cells is 
called epithe' lium.'^ The relation of this structureless mem- 
brane to the epithelium gives it the name of Basement 

Membrane. 

Fig. II. 




Fig. 11. Diagram Exiii..ii..'.u lUi, iulative Position of the Common Anatomical 
Elements of Serous and Mucous Membranes, the Glands, the Lungs and the Skin. 
—1, Epithelinm, secreting cells or epidermis, composed of nucleated cells. 2, Basement 
layer. 3, Fibrous layer, in which the arteries and veins (4) terminate in a capillary net- 
work. Magnified. 

31. From difierence in form and other peculiarities, the 



* Gr., epi, upon, and thele, a nipple. 



GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 23 

Epithelium is divided into several varieties — as the Squa- 
mous Epithelium, consisting of several layers of thin scales, 
which are flattened cells having a nucleus and a few scat- 
tered granules, as in the mucous membrane of the mouth ; 
the Pavement Epithelium, consisting of from one to four 
layers of nucleated cells, six-sided and regularly arranged 
like the blocks of a pavement (whence the name), as in the 
serous membranes ; the Columnar Epithelium, consisting of a 
single layer of six-sided columnar cells, with a conical pro- 





FiG. 12, Squamous Epithelium, consisting of nucleated cells transformed into broad 
scales, from the mucous membrane of the mouth. Highly magnified. 

Fig. 13. Pavement Epithelium, from a serous membrane, highly magnified, and seen 
to consist of flat, six-sided nucleated cells. 

longation terminating in a progeny of developing cells, as in 
the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines; the 
Ciliated Epithelium, having cells possessing at their free ex- 
tremity fine filamentary processes of the cell-wall resembling 
the eye-lashes (whence the name). During life these cilia 
are endowed with a power of moving rapidly backward and 
forward in a wave-like manner, reminding one of the move- 
ment of a field of grain swept by a gentle breeze. Currents 
are thus produced in liquids, conveying them from one part 
to another. This kind of epithelium is found on the mucous 
membrane of the upper part of the nose and pharynx, the 
Eustachian tube and all the respiratory organs. (Figs. 12, 
13, 14, 15.) 

32. Beneath the basement membrane and in contact with 
it is a very dense and vascular layer of areolar and elastic 
tissue. This triple arrangement of epithelium, basement 
membrane and fibro-areolar tissue constitutes the serous, the 
synovial and the mucous membranes, the skin, the ducts of 



24 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

all glands, and the inner coat of the blood-vessels and the 
lymphatics. (Fig. 11.) 

33. The Serous Membrane is that portion which lines 
the walls of certain closed cavities or sacs. It is smooth, 
shining and moistened by a fluid called se'rum, which the 
membrane secretes ; as the pleu'ra, peritone'um, pericar'dium, 
arach'noid, etc. (Fig. 16.) 





Fig. 14. Diagram of a Vertical Section of the Mucous Membrane of the Small 
Intestines. Highly magnified. — 1, Fibrous layer, in which the blood-vessels are distri- 
buted. 2, Basement membrane. 3, Young nucleated cells. 4, Layer of columnar cells. 
5, 6, Cells in the act of being shed or thrown off. 7, Free ends of the columnar cells, 
exhibiting their six-sided form. 8, A single columnar cell, exhibiting its actual form 
at all parts. 

Fig. 15. Diagram of a Vertical Section of the Bronchial Mucous Membrane. — 
1, Columnar ciliated epithelial cells. 2, Cilia. 3, Nuclei. 4, Young cells. 5, Basement 
membrane. 6, Fibrous layer. 

34. The Synovial Membrane resembles the serous very 
closely as regards structure and the closed sacs. It also 
secretes a fluid called syno'via, which is more viscid than that 
of the serous membrane. It has fringe-like processes hanging 
loosely in the joints having large epithelial cells, which prob- 
ably secrete the synovial fluid. This membrane covers the 
cartilages, and lines the ligaments which enter into the com- 
position of the joints. 

Observation. — When the synovial membrane is ruptured, the synovia 
escapes into the surrounding areolar tissue, and what is popularly 
known as the "weeping sinew" is formed. Similar tumors in the joints 
of lower animals are called " windgalls." 



GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 



25 



35. There are two Mucous IMembranes — the Gastro-Pul- 
monary and the Urinary. These do not form closed sacs, like 
the serous and synovial membranes, but both open to the 
surface. The mucous membranes secrete a viscid fluid, 
called mucus, and in their glandular recesses are formed 
various secretions, as saliva, bile, tears, etc. These mem- 
branes vary in different parts both in thickness and appear- 
ance. In the nasal and air passages the membrane is smooth, 
ridgy in the stomach, papillous in the tongue and villous in 
the intestines. 





Fig. 16. Diagram EXuiBnixG the Relation of a Serous Membrane (the pUura) to 
THE Organ it Invests and the Cavity it Lines. — 1, Lung. 2, Eoot of the lung, which 
is the only attached portion of the organ. 3, Side of the thorax. 4. Diaphragm. 5, 
Parietal pleura, 6, Pulmonary or reflected pleura. 7, Cavity of the pleura. 

Fig. 17. Mucous Membrane from the Jejunum. — 1, Tilli resemhliug valvulse con- 
uiventes (folds of lining mucous memhraue) in miniature. 2, Tubular glands: their 
orifices. 3, Opening on the free surface of the mucous membrane. 4, Fibrous tissue. 
Magnified. 



36. The Gastro-Pulmoxary Mucous membrane com- 
mences at the mouth, enters the nostrils, passes between the 
eyelids, dips into the deep parts of the ear, lines the trachea 
and the air-tubes of the lungs, and the alimentary canal from 
one extremity to the other. 

37. The Urixary Mucous membrane lines the ducts con- 
necting the kidneys and the bladder, of which it forms the 
interior coat ; also the passages to the skin, which integument 
is continuous with the mucous membranes. 



CHAPTER III. 

GENERAL CHEMISTRY. 

^ 5. Solids and Fluids. — Proximate Constituents — Inorganic — Or- 
ganic — Nitrogenous — Non-Nitrogenous. Ultimate Chemical Elements. 

38. The human body is composed of solids and fluids, 
reducible, by chemical analysis, to the same constituents 
and elements. In different periods of life the proportion of 
fluids and solids varies ; the former being more abundant in 
youth than in old age. This is one reason why the limbs in 
childhood are soft and smooth, but in later years hard and 
wrinkled. 

39. If the tissues of the body are subjected to chemical 
analysis, they yield about ninety substances, called Proximate 
Constituents, these being the first chemical compounds into 
which the tissues resolve themselves. In living beings 
vitality is, as it were, "the architect who plans the building 
and sees that the requisite materials are procured by the 
chemical processes and Avorked up according to his will." 
Hereupon arises many new substances which cannot be arti- 
ficially imitated ; these are called Organic proximate con- 
stituents. Those substances found in the inorganic kingdom 
also, and capable of artificial imitation, are called Inorganic 
proximate constituents. 

40. Of the Inorganic Proximate Constituents, water 
is the most abundant : it exists in all the tissues ; next to 
this, in relative quantities, are Phosphates of Lime, of Hag- 
ue' sia, of Soda and of Potas'sa ; Carbonates of Lime, of Soda 
and of Potassa; Chloride of Sodium (common Salt) and of 
Potassium ; and Fluoride of Cal'cium. Some compounds con- 
tain Iron, Sil'ica, Manganese', and perhaps some accidental 
substances, as Lead, Copper and Alu'minum. Ammo'niay in 

26 



GENERAL CHEMISTRY. 27 

combination, is found in the urine. Ox' y gen, Ni'trogen and 
Carbonic Acid gas exist in a free state. 

41. The Organic Proximate Constituents are of two 
classes. One class contains the chemical element ^zo^e' * or 
nitrogen ; hence its compounds are called azotized or nitrog- 
enous; the other has no azote, and its compounds are named 
non-azotized or non-nitrogenous. 

42. The Nitrogenous cL'ss contains Alhu'men'\ and its 
allied substances, called Albuminoids. Some of the most 
important are — Alhu'minose, Fibrin, Mus'culin, Glob'ulin, 
Hcdm'atin, Ca'sein, Cartila' gin, Sal'ivin, Pep'sin, Pancrea'tin, 
Mu'cin, Neu'rin, Ker'atin, Elas'tin, Mela'nin and Biliverd'in; 
also some acids, as the Cer'ebric, Chol'ic and Uric. 

43. Albumen and the albuminoids, together with fatty 
matter (non-nitrogenous), are the great nutritive substances 
of the animal economy. Albumen is well known in the white 
of an egg, whence its name. It is found in the substance of 
the brain and nerves ; in the fluid part of the blood ; in the 
moisture that pervades the muscles and other tissues ; in the 
lymph and chyle; and in the mucous, serous and synovial 
secretions. It coagulates by the action of heat and alcohol, 
and is dissolved by weak acids and alkalies. 

44. Albuminose is found in the chyle and blood in a 
liquid condition, and is the result of the digestion of albu- 
minous, fibrinous, musculinous and caseous matter of food ; 
unlike albumen, it is not coagulated by heat. 

45. Fibrin is a soft, white, stringy substance, obtained 
from freshly-drawn blood by whipping it with fine sticks or 
wires. It coagulates spontaneously, assuming the form of 
minute threads or fibrils, whence its name. Fibrin is also 
found in the chyle, lymph and serous secretions. It is precipi- ' 
tated and hardened by alcohol, and redissolved by weak acid. 

46. MuscuLiN is a peculiar form of fibrin that exists in the 
muscles or flesh. Its characteristic property is contractility. 
Boiling hardens it, while weak acids render it more soluble. 

* Gr., a, not, and zoe, life. f Lat,, albus, white. 



28 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

47. Globulin and H^matin form the contents of the red 
globules of the blood. Hsematin contains about seven per 
cent, of iron ; but the color of the blood is now supposed not to 
depend on the iron, but a peculiar substance named cru'orin. 

48. Casein resembles albumen in its general properties, 
but, unlike albumen, when in solution it is not coagulated by 
heat, but by acids. It exists in solution in milk with lac'tin 
(milk sugar) and salts. It forms the curd in soured milk, 
the casein being coagulated by the lactic acid formed from 
decomposed lactin. 

49. Cartilagin is the principal constituent of the con- 
nective tissues, as the so-called bone cartilage, true cartilage, 
ligaments, tendons, fibrous membranes, dermis and the areo- 
lar tissue. The basis of bone cartilage is os'teine, with which 
are blended salts of lime. The basis of true cartilage is 
called chon'drigen. Unlike albumen, cartilagin is insoluble 
in water and does not coagulate by heat, but is liquified by 
boiling and changed into gel'atln or glue. 

50. Salivin is found in the saliva. It has the peculiar 
property of changing starch into a kind of gum called dex'- 
trine, the dextrine into glu'cose or grape sugar, and this into 
lactic acid. 

51. Pepsin is a remarkable and potent substance secreted 
by the glands of the mucous membrane of the stomach. This 
secretion is a peculiar principle of the gastric juice, and, 
when slightly acidulated, has the property of quickly dis- 
solving coagulated albumen, blood, meats, fish, cheese and 
many other substances. 

52. Pancreatin is the active principle of the secretion of 
the pancreas. It has three distinct actions — 1st, on starch ; 
2d, on fat ; and 3d, on albuminous matter. 

53. Mucin is a substance found in the different varieties 
of mucus, imparting to them their viscid character. It is 
usually mixed with other fluids. 

54. Neuein is also an albuminoid substance connected 
with the brain and nerves, upon which the peculiar charac- 
teristics of the nervous system are supposed to depend. 



GENERAL CHEMISTRY. 29 

55. Keratin is the peculiar albuminoid principle giving 
the horn-like character to the hair, nails and cuticle. 

56. Elastic is the substance peculiar to the elastic tissue. 
It is insoluble in all common fluids. 

57. Melanin is a blackish-brown coloring matter found 
in the choroid coat and the iris of the eye, in the hair and in 
the epidermis. It is most abundant in the black and brown 
races, but it also exists in the yellow and white races. 

58. BiLiVEEDiN is the coloring matter of the bile. It is 
yellow in transmitted light and greenish in reflected light. 
On exposure to the air in its natural fluid condition, it ab- 
sorbs oxygen and assumes a bright grass-green color. 

59. Besides the before-mentioned constituents, none of which 
are acid but mucin, there are several acids, among which 
may be named the Cerebrie acid found in the gray substance 
of the brain ; Cholic acid in the bile ; and Uric acid in the 
urine. 

60. The groups of non-nitrogenized or non-azotized sub- 
stances are — the fats, sugars and starch. The fats are most 
abundant. These are insoluble in water, but are dissolved 
by heat, alcohol and ether. They are found in the brain, 
muscles, blood and chyle. 

61. The Fats of the human body are composed mostly of 
o'lein (liquid fat), and ste'arin and mar'garin (solid fats), mar- 
garin being most abundant, and stearin least. The fats are 
derived from the fatty components of food, and also from 
transformed saccharine compounds. When boiled with an 
alkali, as in the manufacture of soap, they decompose into 
fatty acids, margaric, stearic and oleic acids, and a sweet, 
viscid substance called glyc'erine. 

62. Sugars are of different kinds, as Glucose (grape 
sugar), in the blood and chyle ; Liver sugar, in the liver ; 
Lac'tin (milk sugar), in milk; In'osit (muscle sugar), in 
muscles. Lactin, in contact with azotized matter, or a fer- 
ment, easily decomposes, forming lactic acid. All these 
saccharine and acid substances are soluble in both water and 
alcohol. 

3* 



30 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

63. The Ultimate Chemical Elements enter into the 
composition of the body in about the following percentage 
proportions : 

Gases. Oxygen 72. 

Hydrogen 9.1 

Nitrogen 2.5 

Chlorine .085 

Fhiorine 08 

Solids. Carbon 13.5 

Phosphorus 1.15 

Calcium 1.3 

Sulphur 1476 

Sodium , 1 

Potassium 026 

Iron 01 

Magnesium 0012 

Silicon .0002 

100.0000 

64. The greater part of the oxygen and hydrogen exists in 
a state of water, but the dried residue still contains some 
gaseous as well as solid elements. 

65. Carbon is the most abundant element. In the in- 
evitable decomposition of the body, while its hydrogen and 
nitrogen, with part of its carbon and oxygen, are restored to 
the inorganic world in the shape of water, carbonic acid and 
ammonia, the rest of its carbon and oxygen, its chlorine and 
fluorine, its phosphorus and sulphur, and its metallic bases, 
calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium and iron, with a 
trace of silicon and manganese, revert to the condition of 
inorganic salts and earths — viz., carbonates, sulphates and 
phosphates, chlorides and fluorides of the above-named saline 
and earthy bases. 



ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 31 



ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 

Chapter I. — General Remarks. 
§ 1. The Three Kingdoms of Nature Compared. — 1. State the Linnsean distinctions of 
tlie three kingdoms of Nature. Name the three kingdoms, and define each. 2. Of what 
are Organic and Inorganic bodies combinations? Wliat is said respecting Life-force? 
3. Give the distinguishing features of Organized and Unorganized matter. 4. State the 
distinctions between animals and plants. What is said of these distinctions in the lower 
forms of life? 5. Define Organ, Apparatus and Function. What is Anatomy? Physi- 
ology ? Hygiene ? 6. Of what are organs composed ? Define Histology and Chemistry. 

Chapter II.— General Histology. 

2 3. Cells.— 7. Where do you find Unity of Plan ? 8. Define Protoplasm. What is 
Animal Protoplasm? 9. What is said of nucleated cells? Of the modifications of these 
cells? 10. Di-tinguish between animal and vegetable cells. Of what is the simple cell 
thetj'pe? 11. Of what does a simple cell consist? Give an illustration. 12. To what 
modifications are cells subject? 13. In what ways do cells multiply? 14. What is said 
of the growth, perfection and decay of cells ? 

§ 3. Frimary Tissues. — 15. How are the different tissues of the body forme<l? Upon 
what do their characters depend? 16. To what are the Primary Tissues reducible? 17. 
Of what is the Fibrous form composed ? State its nature and forms. 18. Give the com- 
position and forms of the White Fibrous tissue. What is Gelatin? 19. Describe the 
Yellow Fibrous tissue. Why called Elastic? Does it gelatinize by boiling? Wiiere 
found? Observation. 20. Of what does the Areolar form consist? What is said of its 
cellular structure? What of its individuality? Observation. 21. Describe the Carti- 
laginous tissue. Mention the properties of Cartilage. Where is this tissue found? 
What is the relation of cartilage to bone? 22. What peculiarity has the Adipose tissue? 
Of what composed? Where found? Its use? 23. Give the composition of Muscular 
tissue. What is its characteristic? Wliat of its electrical nature? 24. Describe the 
Sclerous tissue. 25. Describe the Tubular tissue. What is the office of the capillary 
vessels? Of what are their walls composed ? Where is this tissue found ? 26. How is the 
Nervous tissue distinguished ? Where found? In what respect like the Muscular tissue ? 
Mention its elements. 27. Describe the Ganglionic Corpuscles. 28. What is said of the 
Gray fibres? Where found? 29. Speak of the White fibres. Where are the gray and 
white substances found? 

§4:. Membranes. — 30. What is the Basement membrane? What is the Epithelium? 
Why these membranes so called? 31. Name and describe the varieties of the Epi- 
thelium. Of what power the Cilia? Where is the Ciliated Epithelium found? 32. 
What is beneath the basement membrane ? What are constituted by the epithelium, 
basement membrane and fibro-areolar tissue? 33. Where is the Serous membrane 
found? Its qualities? 34. What is said of the Synovial membrane? Observation. 35. 
Describe the Mucous membranes. 36. Where is the Gastro-Pulmonary Mucous mem- 
brane found? 37. Where the Urinary? Observation. 

Chapter III. — General Chemistry. 
§5. Solids and Fluids.— 38. Of what is the human body composed? What is said 
of the proportion of solids and fluids? 39. Wiiat are the Proximate Constituents? De- 
fine Organic and Inorganic Proximate Constituents. 40. Name the Inorganic Proximate 
Constituents. 41. Give the classes of Organic Proximate Constituents. 42. What are 
contained in the Nitrogenous class? Name the most important. 43. What is the office 
of Albumen in the animal economy ? Give the derivation of its name. Where found ? 
What peculiarity has it? 44. Describe Albuminose. 45. What is Fibrin? Where 
found? What is the influence of alcohol upon it? 46. Describe Musculin. How 



32 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIK5TE. 

hardened? 47. Where are Globulin and Hsematin found? 48, Give the properties of 
Casein. Where does it exist? 49. Define Cartilagin. What is Osteine? Chondrigen? 
50. Define and give the property of Saiivin. 51. Describe Pepsin, and state its property. 
52. What is Pancreatin ? State its actions. 53. Describe Mucin. 54. What is Neiu'in? 
55. Define Keratin. 56. To what is Elastin pecnliar? 57. Where is Melanin found? 
58. Of what use Biliverdin ? Color? 59. Name the acids of the nitrogenous class. 60. 
Mention the non-nitrogenous groups. 61. Of what are the fats composed? Fi'om what 
derived? What is Glycerine? 62. Mention the different kinds of sugars. 63. Name 
the ultimate chemical elements, with their percentage proportions. 64. In what con- 
dition are oxygen and hydrogen? What is said of carbon? 65. What becomes of the 
chemical elements in decomposition ? 

UNIFIC REVIEW. 

[Compare S with 102.] 
What is Protoplasm ? 

[Compare 10-14 with 102, 103, 220, 314, 317, 319, 347, 357, 410^415, 417, 478 
and 485-488.] 
Describe nucleated cells, and' tell where found. In the lining membrane 
of what organs do you find the epithelium ? Where do you find ciliated 
epithelium ? 
[Compare 17-21 with 105-108, 183, 289, 313-317, 319, 355, 35S, 415 and 416.] 
Name the connective tissues. Mention some distinguishing features of 
each. Where do you find the white fibrous tissues ? Where the yellow 
fibrous? Where is cartilage found? 

[Compare 24 with 103 and 104.] 
What tissiie is found in bone ? Give the mode of bone-formation. 

[Compare 23 with 159-162, 223-226 and 316-319.] 
What is the structure of muscular tissue? Where found? What is its re- 
lation to the cellRlar ? 

[Compare 25 with 318 and 411-414.] 
Where do you find the tubular tissue ? 

[Compare 26-29 with 409-414.] 
Tell what you can about the nervous tissue. 
[Compare 30-32 with 220, 221, 223-226, 229, 314, 317, 319, 346, 356, 357, 
415 and 416.] 
Where is the Basement membrane found? 

[Compare 33 with 229, 313, 358 and 415.] 
Where do you find the Serous membrane ? 

[Compare 34 with 107 and 163.] 
What is the office of the Synovial membrane ? 

[Compare 35-37 with 220, 221, 223-226, 354-357 and 478-480.] 
Name the mucous membranes. The mucous membrane lines what organs ? 
Point out the difference between mucous and serous membranes. With 
what is the mucous membrane continuous ? 
[131.] 
What is said of the tissues, cells and chemical composition of all animals ? 



DIAGEAMS FOR TOPICAL REVIEW. 



33 



For description of the diagrams, see corresponding figures in the text. 





Fig. 2. Process of Multiplication of Cells. 
Fig. 10. Nucleated Cells from NEUvors Tissue. 






IiG. 4. riBiious Tissue, 

Fig. 8. Capillart Network keprfsenting Tubular Tissue. 





Fig. 14. Diagram of a Vertical Section of the Mucous Membrane. 
Fig. 17 represents Mucous Membrane from the Jejunum. 



34 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



^2. 

Cells. 



Primary 

Tissues. 



Membranes. 



SYNTHETIC TOPICAL REVIEW. 

Essential distinctions between min- 
eral, vegetable and animal king- 
doms, 

Nature of life-force. 

Vitalized and non-vitalized bodies 

compared, "6 ^- Chap. I. 

Animals and plants compared, |- Three V General 

These distinctions in higher and Kingdrms Remarks. 
lower forms, 

Organ, apparatus and functions, 

Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, 

Structure of organs, 

Histology and Chemistry. J 

Unity of plan in animals and plants, 

Pi'Otoplasra, 

Nucleated cell, 

Simple cell, 

Adaptation to different offices, 

Modes of multiplication of cells, 

Growth, perfection and decay. 

Primary tissues, 

Fibrous tissue, 

Areolar, 

Cartilaginous, 

Adipose, 

Muscular, 

Sclerous, 

Tubular, 

Nervous. 

Basement membrane. 

Epithelium, 

Serous membrane. 

Synovial' " 

Mucous membranes. 

Solids and fluids. 

Proximate constituents, 

Inorganic " g 5. Chap. III. 

Organic " [ SnUdsand \ General 

Nitrogenous " Fluids. Oiemistry. 

Non-nitrogenous " 

Ultimate chemical elements. 

State the General Remarks, the General Histology and the General 
Chemistry of the human system. 



Chap. II. 

General 
Histology. 



Division I. 

Outline 
Principles. 



DIVISION II. 

MOTORY APPAEATUS. 

6Q. In all the movements connected with the merriments 
of childhood, with the ceaseless industry of the toiling mil- 
lions, with the hymning of the praises of the great I Am — 
in a word, in every movement of the body — certain organs are 
brought into action, which, taken collectively, constitute the 
MoTORY Apparatus. The organs of this apparatus are the 
Bones and Joints, the Muscles and Motor Nerves, 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE BONES. 



§ 6. Anatomy of the Bones. — The Skeleton and its Uses. Number 
and Classification of the Bones. Bon^s of the Head — Of the Trunk — 
Of the Upper Extremities — Of the Lower Extremities. The Joints — 
Definition and Classification. Immovable Joints — Mixed — Movable. 

67. The Internal Framework of the human body con- 
sists of Bones, which, united by strong ligaments, constitute 
the Skeleton. These bones number two hundred and eight, 
besides the teeth. For convenience they are classed as the 
bones of the Head, the Trunk and the Extremities. 

68. The Bones of the Head are divided into those of 
the Skull, the Face and the Ear. 

69. The Skull is composed of eight bones — the Front'al, 
occupying the portion called the forehead ; the two Tem'poral, 
covering the part commonly known as the temples ; the tw ) 
Pari'etal, forming the essential part of the projection on the 
upper and lateral parts of the head and uniting in the median 

35 



36 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



Fia. 18. 




THE BONES. 



37 



line upon the top of the skull ; the Occipital, at the posterior 
part of the skull, resting upon the first vertebra and having 
a large orifice for the passage of the spinal cord ; the Sphe- 
noid, situated across the base of the skull ; and the Eili'noid 
bone, between the sockets of the eyes and behind the base 
of the nose. (Figs. 18, 19.) 

Fig. 19. 




Fig. 19. Bones of the Head. — 1, Frontal bono. 2, Parietal bone. 3, Temporal bone. 
4, Occipital bone. 5, Nasal bone. 6, Malar bone. 7, Upper jaw, 8, Os unguis. 9, 
Lower jaw. 

70. The skull-bones are formed of two plates united by 
porous bone-substance. The external plate is fibrous and 
tough ; the internal, dense and hard, hence called the vitreous 
or glassy plate. These bones are united by sut'ures ; the ex- 
ternal plate having notched edges fitted together as in the 
dovetailing of carpentry ; the internal, plane edges in simple 
apposition. From infancy to the twelfth year the sutures are 
imperfect ; from that time to forty, distinctly marked ; and 
in old age, nearly obliterated. 

71. The Face has fourteen bones — the two Na'sal, forming 
the bridge or base of the nose ; the two Ma'lar (cheek-bones) ; 
the two Lach'rymal; the two Superior Max'illary, articulating 



38 



ANATOMY, PPIYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



with two bones of the skull and all the bones of the face ex- 
cepting the lower jaw ; the two Pal' ate bones, forming the 
orbits of the eyes, the outside of the nose, and the most of the 
roof of the mouth known as the hard palate ; the two Tur'~ 
hinated, in the nostrils ; the Inferior Maxillary (mandible), 
the only movable bone of the face, articulating with the tem- 
poi'al bones ; and the Vo'mer which separates the nostrils 
from each other. (Fig. 19.) 

The Ear has three small bones which aid in hearing. 




Fig. 20. Thk Front View of the Thorax. — 1, 2, 3, The sternum. 4, 5, The spinal 
column. 6, 7, 8, 9, The fu'st ribs. 10, The seventh rib. 11. Cartilage of the third^ rib. 
12, The floating rib. 

Fig. 21. The Spinal Column, Lateral view.— 1, The Cervical. 2, Dorsal. 3, Lumbar 

vertebra?, 4, Sacrum. 5, Coccyx. 

72. The Bones of the Trunk number fifty-four — twenty- 
four i^iS.s; twenty-four bones in iho, Spinal Column; four in 
\h.Q Pelvis; the Ster'num (breast- bone) ; and the Os Hyoi'des 
(at the base of the tongue). These bones, with the soft parts 
attached, are so arranged as to form two cavities called the 
Tho'rax (chest) and the Ah'domen. (Figs. 20, 21, 22.) 

73. The Thorax is formed by the sternum in front, the 



THE BONES. 



39 



ribs at the sides and the twelve dorsal vertebrae at the back. 
The natural form of the chest is conical, with the apex above. 
The thorax contains the heart, the lungs and the large blood- 
vessels. (Fig. 20.) 

74. The Sternum is situated in the middle line of the 
front of the chest, and is held in place chiefly by the ribs. 
Each side is marked by seven pits for receiving the cartilages 
of the corresponding true ribs. In childhood the sternum 
consists of several cartilaginous pieces, which ossify and unite 
in later years. (Fig. 20.) 

75. The Ribs are connected with the spinal column, twelve 
on each side. The first seven, called True ribs, are connected 
with the sternum by means of cartilage ; of the remaining 
five, called False ribs, three are connected by cartilage with 
each other, while the two lower are free at their anterior ex- 
tremity, hence c^Wedi floating ribs, (Fig. 20.) 

76. The Spinal Column is composed of twenty-four bones, 
called Vert'ebrce. These are arranged in three classes, ac- 
cording to their situation ; the seven of the neck are called 
Cer' vical ; the 

twelve of the ^^«- 22- 

back, Dor'sal; 
and the five of 
the loins, Lum'bar 
vertebrae. Be- 
tween every pair vjm^if^vMf '^^^^^^^ ' ^\'V ;/';'v///b/j 
of true vertebrae ^^Mv\l. ^ ^^^^^ MilmM 
are plates of white 
fibrous tissue, 
called Interverte- 
bral lAgaments. 
(Fig. 21.) 

77. The Pelvis fig. 22. front view of the pelvis.— 1, 1, The innominata. 

A -P+l 2, The sacrum. 3, The coccyx. 4, 4, Socket, e, The junction 

IS COmpOSea OI tne ^^ ^j^^ sacrum and lower lumbar vertebra. 

two Innominata 

(nameless bones), the Sa'crum and the Coc'cyx. (Fig. 22.) 

78. The Innominatum is the hip-bone; in it is a deep 




40 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

socket for the head of the thigh-bone. In the centre of this 
cavity is a depression to which the round ligament of the 
thigh-bone is fixed. (Fig, 22.) 

79. The Sacrum is a wedge-shaped bone between the in- 
nominata. In early life it is composed of five vertebrae, 
which become united in later years. It is the basis of the 
vertebral column. The texture of the sacrum is very light 
and spongy. (Fig. 22.) 

80. The Coccyx, at the lower extremity of the spinal 
column, varies at different ages : in infancy it is cartilag- 
inous ; in adult age, formed of four pieces of bone or verte- 
brae ; in after life it becomes a continuous, blended structure. 
(Fig. 22.) 

81. The Upper Extremities contain sixty-four bones : 
the Scap'ula (shoulder-blade) ; the Clav'ide (collar-bone) ; 
the Hu'merus (arm-bone) ; the Ra'dius and JJl'na (fore-arm) ; 
the Car'pus (wrist) ; the Meta-car' pus (palm of the hand) ; 
and the Phalan'ges (fingers and thumb). (Fig. 18.) 

82. The Scapula, a flat, thin, triangular bone, is situated 
upon the upper and back part of the chest. It lies upon 
muscles by which it is held in place and moved in different 
directions. 

83. The Clavicle,* shaped like the italic/, is attached 
at one extremity to the sternum, and at the other to the 
scapula. (Fig. 18.) 

84. The Humerus is a long, cylindrical bone, joined at 
the elbow with the ulna of the fore-arm, and at the scapular 
extremity lodged in a superficial cavity. (Fig. 18.) 

85. The IJLNAt is the small bone of the fore-arm, and 
occupies the inner side. It articulates with the humerus at 
the elbow, forming a perfect hinge-joint. (Fig. 18.) 

86. The KadiusJ is placed on the outside (the thumb 
side) of the fore-arm, and nearly parallel to the ulna. It is 
larger than the ulna, and articulates with it, both at the 
elbow and at the wrist. The radius also articulates with 

* Lat,, davits, a key. f It., a measure. t L^t., a spoke. 



THE BONES. 



41 



the first row of bones at the wrist forming the wrist-joint. 
(Fig. 18.) 

87. 'The Carpus has eight bones, arranged in two rows, 
and so firmly bound together as to permit little movement. 
One row articulates with the fore-arm, the other with the 
metacarpus. (Fig. 23.) 

88. The Metacarpus* has five bones, upon four of which 
are placed the first range of finger-bones, and upon the other 
the first thumb-bone. The metacarpal bone of the thumb is 
the shortest, and it is also disconnected with and divergent 
from the others. ' (Figs. 23, 24.) 

Fig. 23. Fig. 24. 





Fig. 23. The Weist.— TJ, The ulna. R, The radius. S, The scaplioitl. L, The semi- 
lunar. C, The cuneiform. P, The pisiform. The last four form the first row of carpal 
bones. T, T, The trapezium and trapezoid. M, Magnum. U, Unciform. The last four 
form the second row of carpal bones. 1, 1, 1, 1, Metacarpal bones. 

Fig. 24. The Ha^jd.— 10, 10, 10, The metacarpal bones of the hand. 11, 11, First row 
of finger-bones. 12, 12, Second row of finger-bones. 13, 13, Third row of finger-bones. 
14, 15, The bones of the thiimb. 

89. The Phalanges t of the fingers have three bones, 
while the thumb has but two. The fingers are named, in 
succession, the thumb, the index, the middle, the ring and 
the little finger. (Fig. 24.) 

90. The Lower Extremities contain sixty bones : the 



* Gr., meta, after or beyond, and karpos, wrist. 



f Gr., roil). 



42 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

Fe'mur (thigh-bone) ; the Patel'la (knee-pan) ; the Tih'ia 
(shin-bone) ; the Fib'ula (small bone of the leg) ; the Tar'sus 
(instep) ; the Metatar'sus (middle of the foot) ; and the Pha- 
lan'ges (toes). (Fig. 18.) 

91. The Femur* is the strongest and longest bone of the 
skeleton. It supports the weight of the head, trunk and 
upper extremities. 

92. ' The Patella f is a small chestnut-shaped bone, placed 
on the anterior part of the lower extremity of the femur, and 
connected with the tibia by a strong ligament. 

93. The Tibia J is situated at the fore and inner part of the 
leg. It is triangular in shape. 

94. The Fibula § is smaller than the tibia, and of similar 
shape. It is firmly bound to the tibia at each extremity. 




Fig. 25. The Upper Surface of the Bones of the Foot.— 1, The surface of the astra- 
galus or ankle-bone, where it unites with the tibia. 2, The body of the astragulus. 
3. Calcis or heel-bone. 4, The scaphoid. 5, 6, 7, The cuneiform. 8, The cuboid. 9, 9, 9, 
The metatarsal bones. 10, 11, The plialanges of the great toe. 12, 13, 14, The phalanges 
of the other toes. 

95. The Tarsus is formed of seven irregular bones, firmly 
bound together by a few large and strong ligaments, and by 
a great number of short fibres that extend between the con- 
tiguous bones, both on the back and sole of the foot. (Fig. 25.) 

96. The Metatarsus consists of five bones ; they bear a 
close resemblance to the metacarpus of the hand. The tarsal 
and metatarsal bones are so united as to give the foot the 
form of a double arch. (Fig. 33.) 

97. The Phalanges of the toes have fourteen bones, each 

■^ Lat., thigh. f Lat., little dish. J Lat., a flute. § Lat., a elasp. 



THE BONES. 43 

of the small toes having three, and the great toe two rows. 
(Fig. 25.) 

98. The Joints are formed by the ends of bones, usually 
enlarged and variously united according to the purposes to 
be subserved. Generally, one surface is somewhat convex 
and the other correspondingly concave, the two parts being 
beautifully fitted to each other ; associated with these are the 
Cartilages, Synovial Membrane and the Ligaments. All the 
articulations are distributed into three groups — the Immovable, 
the Mixed and the Movable. 

99. The Immovable Joints include the several kinds of 
suture. A suture is called Serrated"^ when the zigzag edges 
are united as in the external plate of the skull ; Squa'mose, 
when the edges are beveled so that one overlaps the other, as 
in the union of the temporal and parietal bones ; Lim'bous, 
when the borders of the adjacent bones are elevated, as in 
the union of the parietal and occipital bones. Sometimes a 
false suture occurs, called Har'monia, where the opposed edges 
are smooth and even, as in the internal plate of the skull and 
the upper jaw-bones. The fitting of the teeth into their sockets, 
as a nail is driven into a board, is called Gompho' sis :'\ these 
are improperly classed with the joints. (Fig. 18.) 

100. The Mixed Joints are those in which the opposed 
surfaces of the bones are joined directly together by some 
intermediate soft substance, which is fibrous externally, and 
more or less cartilaginous toward its central part, as between 
the bodies of the vertebrte and the two upper parts of the 
sternum. (Figs. 20, 21.) 

101. The Movable Joints are the most perfect articula- 
tions, h&iiig freely movable, for which purpose they are covered 
with cartilage where the surfaces are in contact, and provided 
with synovial membrane and connecting ligaments. They 
are of three kinds — the Planiform, the Hinge and the Ball- 
and-Socket joints. The Planiform is found where the sur- 
faces of the bones are more or less plane and the movements 

* Lat,, serra, a saw. f Gr., gomphos, a nail. 



44 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



gliding, as in the articulations of the tarsus and the carpus ; 
of the ribs with the vertebrae, and their costal cartilages with 
the sternum: The Hinge joint (Gipglyform), where there is 
motion in two directions only, backward and forward, as at 
the knee : The B all- ayid- Socket joint, also called Rotary, where 
there is free movement in all directions ; it consists of a cup- 
like cavity in one bone, and a rounded extremity to fit it in 
the other bone, as in the hip and shoulder joints ; the socket 
at the hip is called the Acetah' ulum, at the shoulder, the 
Gle'noid cavity. (Fig. 18.) 

^ "7. Histology of the Bones. — Formation of Temporary Cartilage. 
Intra-Cartilaginous Mode of Bone-Formation. Periosteum. Endos- 
teum. Cartilages of the Joints. Synovial Membrane. Ligaments. 

102. The primitive basis or plasma of the bone is a sub- 
transparent, glairy matter containing numberless minute 
corpuscles. It gradually acquires firmness and nucleated 
cells appear, indicating the change into cartilage. As these 
cells increase in number and size they become aggregated in 
rows or columns, where ossification is about to begin. In the 
cartilaginous basis of long bones, these rows are vertical to 
the ends; in that of flat bones, to the margin. 
Fig. 26. Fig. 27. 





Fig. 26 (Leidy). An Osseous Lacuna, exhibiting its numerous diverging canaliculi. 
Fig. 27 (Lessing). Haversian Canal, lacunas and connecting canaliculi. 

103. The first appearance of bone is that of minute granules. 
Afterward, the cartilage corpuscles become filled with these 



THE BONES. 



45 



granules in all parts excepting their nuclei, which remain 
isolated in the bony substance. From these proceed minute 
canals, which become enlarged, forming the cavities called 
Lacu'nce.^ These everywhere connect with each other by 
minute tubes called Canalic'uH.'f One layer of cells after 
another is thus converted into bony plates, till the whole 




Fig. 28 (Leidy). Transverse Section of Bone from the Shaft of the Femur. 
Highly magnified. — The large circular orifices are transverse sections of the Havers 
canals, surrounded by layers of osseous substance. Between the latter are seen the 
lacunae intercommunicating by means of canaliculi. 

column is filled, excepting a fine central tube called the Canal 
of Havers. This microscopic osseous cylinder is called an 
ossicle, and is a true miniature of any one of the long bones. 
The compact portion of all bones is made up of these ossicles, 



' Lat., small pits. 



f Lat., small pipes. 



46 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



which, under the microscope, resemble bundles of pipe-stems 
placed side by side, the interspaces being filled with bone- 
substance. This mode of bone-formation is called Intra- 
cartilaginous. (Figs. 26, 27, 28.) 

104. The long bones are hollow cylinders, compact upon 
the exterior, and cancellated or spongy within. This open 
texture increases toward the ends, which it entirely fills, ex- 
cepting the very thin, hard wall. The cylindrical cavity is 
filled with a yellowish fat called Medul'la,"^ consisting of soft, 
delicate, adipose cells. (Figs. 29, 30.) 





Fig. 29. Longitudinal Section of the Pboximal Extremity of the FEMUE,*exliibit- 
iiig tlie arrangement of the spongy substance. — ^1, 2, Positions in which the compact 
substance appears to resolve itself into a series of arches. 

Fig. 30. A Vertical Section of the Knee-Joint. — 1, The femur. 3, The patella. 
5, The tibia. 2, 4, Ligaments of the patella. 6, Cartilage of the tibia. 12, The cartilage 
of the femur. * * * *^ The synovial membrane. * 

105. With the exception of the cartilage-tipped extremities, 
the bones are invested with a dense, white-fibrous membrane 
called Feri'ostewn;-[ and even at the joints it may be traced 
over the capsular ligaments, thus realizing the opinion of the 



* Lat., marrow. 



f Lat,, perl, around, and os, a bone. 



THE BONES. 47 

ancients that the periosteum formed a complete sac for the 
whole skeleton. Nor is this true of the external only ; for, 
continuous with the periosteum and lining the medullary 
cavity and various openings of the bone, there is a web-like 
and very vascular membrane of extreme tenuity, called En- 
dosteum^ or Internal Periosteum. 

106. In order to facilitate the movements of bones upon 
each other, they are covered at the joints with a thinnish 
layer of Cartilage or gristle — a tough, elastic, pearly-white 
substance, veiy smooth on the free surface. Upon convex 
surfaces it is thickest in the centre, while upon concave sur- 
faces it is thickest toward the circumference. This cartilage 
is sometimes interposed as a ring, forming a movable socket, 
which, like the friction-wheels of machinery, aids the motion 
of the joint. This arrangement is seen in the lower jaw, the 
cartilage being attached to the synovial membrane, but per- 
fectly movable and following the movements of the jaw, thus 
preventing dislocation. (Fig. 30.) 

107. The Synovial Membrane secretes a viscid fluid 
called Syn'ovia, which lubricates the movable joints. This 
membrane is of three kinds — the Articular Capsules, the 
Bur'sm Muco'scb and the Sub-cutaneous Synovial Capsules. 
The Articular Capsule forms a complete sac, which covers the 
articular surface of one bone, and is thence reflected to the 
other, adhering closely to the borders of each of the cartilag- 
inous surfaces. The Bursce Mucoscb are pouches of synovial 
membrane interposed between bones and the tendons that 
play upon them like cords upon pulleys ; they also occur 
W'here tendons or muscles move upon ligaments, fibro-car- 
tilages, or upon each other. Tendons moving through grooves 

*of bone are enclosed in a synovial tube, which is reflected 
upon itself so as to line the groove within which the motion 
takes place. The Sub-cutaneous Capsule or membrane is found 
wherever the skin is frequently moved over a resisting part, 
as between the skin and patella at the knee. Wherever a 

* Gr., vjithiii, and os, bone. 



48 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



number of tendons move upon one another, this membrane 
is folded around and among them; it appears to have the 
same function as the bursjfi mucosse. 

Observation. — When the synovial sheath of tendons is ruptured, the 
synovia passes into the cellular tissue under the skin, forming a tumor 
called "ganglions" or " weeping sinews." The only means of cure is to 
close the ruptured sheath. 



Fig. 31. 



Fig. 32. 





Fig. 31. The Right Knee-Joint, laid open from the front.— 1, Articular surface of the 
femur. 2, 3, Crucial ligaments. 4, Insertion of one of these ligaments into the tibia. 
6, 7, Internal and external semi-lunar fibro-cartilages. 8, Ligament of the patella turned 
down so as to exhibit tlie sj'novial bursa (9) beneath. 10, Superior tibio-fibular articula- 
tion. 11, Interosseous membrane. 

Fig. 32. Front View of the Right Knee-Joint. — 1, Tendon of the quadriceps ex- 
tensor muscle. 2, Patella. 3, Ligament of the patella, or tendinous insertion of the 
muscle just mentioned. 4, 4, Capsular ligament. 5, 6, Internal and external lateral 
ligaments. 7, Superior tibio-fibular articulation. 



108. Outside the synovial membrane, and more or less 
connected with it, are the special ties of the joints, called 
Ligaments. These ligaments are composed of white-fibrous 
tissue, and are named Cap'sular, Band-like and Funicular. 
The Capsular Ligaments are cylindrical sacs extending com- 
pletely around the joints and blending with the periosteum. 
This form is found with the ball-and-socket joint. The hip 
and the shoulder joints furnish perfect examples of the liga- 
mentous capsule. The Band-like Ligaments are broad bands 



THE BONES. 49 

of parallel fibres found with the hinge-joint ; and sometimes, 
where great strength is needed, as accessory to the capsular 
ligament. The Funicular Ligaments are cords round or flat, 
which extend from one bone to another, sometimes within 
and sometimes without the joint. An example is seen in the 
two ligaments crossing each other within the knee-joint, also 
in the single ligament within and connecting the ball-and- 
socket joint of the hip. (Figs. 31, 32.) 

§ 8, Chemistry of the Bones. — Chemical Composition of ike Bones, 
Experiments showing Earthy and Animal Matter. 

109. Bones are composed of both animal and mineral 
matter, the animal matter being in excess in early life, and 
the mineral in old age. The average proportion is about 
thirty-three per cent, animal matter {cartilage and blood- 
vessels) ; and sixty-seven per cent, mineral, of which fifty-one 
parts are bone-earth {phosphate of lime) ; eleven parts chalk 
{carbonate of lime) ; the remaining parts are fluor spar 
{fluoride of calcium) ; phosphate of magnesia ; and common 
salt {chloride of sodium). 

Observation. — To show the earthy without the animal matter, burn a 
bone in a clear fire, and it becomes white and brittle, the animal part 
having been consumed. To show the animal without the earthy mat- 
ter, immerse a slender bone, for a few days, in weak acid (one part 
hydrochloric or muriatic acid and six parts water), and it becomes 
flexible, the earthy matter having been removed. 

§0. Physiology of the Bones. — General Uses of the Bones — 
Adaptation of their Structure to their Uses. Skill as shown in the 
Skull — In the Spinal Column — In the Bibs — In the Pelvis — In the 
Upper Extremities — In the Lower Extremities — In the Long Bones, 
The Uses of the Joints. Classification of the Joints. Of Movable Joints, 
Function of the Synovia. Of the Cartilages. Of the Ligaments. Of 
the Periosteum. Perfection of this part of the Animal Fabric. 

110. The Bones serve as the framework of the system; 
as bases for the attachment of muscles ; as levers for the 
organs of locomotion ; as pulleys for the passage of tendons ; 
and as protection for the delicate internal organs. In their 

5 C 



50 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

adaptation to their several offices, they exhibit a perfection 
of mechanism worthy the infinite mind of the Divine 
Architect. 

111. In the minutest structure of the bones, as revealed by 
tlie microscope, we find the delicate tissues so disposed as to 
give the greatest amount of strength and lightness and a 
certain degree of elasticity — qualities essential to the per- 
formance of their several offices. In their more general 
structure, w^e see regard to the same qualities, the exterior 
being dense and compact, the interior spongy or cancellated. 
Take any bone, or series of bones, and note their peculiar 
configuration and the purposes to be subserved, and there 
appears the same marked evidence of special care and skill- 
ful mechanism. 

112. In the arrangement of the Skull for the protection 
of the brain, the oval form (the form best adapted to resist 
pressure equally applied on all sides) ; the thickened base 
where the most important part of the brain lies ; the strong 
and narrow prominences, both in front and back, where most 
exposed to violence ; the tough and hard plates to resist the 
penetration of sharp substances ; the intervening spongy layer 
to diminish vibrations ; the separated bones, and the serrated 
unions of the external plates, also to lessen shocks; the 
simple contact of plane edges in the internal vitreous plate, 
where zigzag edges would be easily broken ; the projections, 
depressions and apertures for the safe passage of nerves and 
blood-vessels, — all combine to accomplish the one object, 
protection. 

113. To construct the Spinal Column was no easy me- 
chanical problem. These offices were to be taken into the 
account : it must support the head ; furnish an axis of sup- 
port for the other parts of the body ; allow a bending and 
somewhat rotary movement ; furnish a basis for the attach- 
ment of muscles ; provide passages and protection for the 
spinal cord and nerves; and the whole must be arranged 
with reference to the importance and delicacy of the brain. 
The number of vertebrae, the cartilage cushions and the four 



THE BONES. 51 

curves of the column all tend to secure the brain from shocks 
it would otherwise receive from walking, leaping and running. 

114. The KiBS serve to protect the delicate organs of the 
chest. These slender bones should be elastic and movable : 
the first quality is secured by the cartilaginous union to the 
sternum ; the second, by their cartilages, their articulations 
with the spine, and their oblique position. 

115. The Pelvis not only furnishes support for the upper 
part of the body and the articulations of the lower extremi- 
ties, but also serves as a base for the attachment of the power- 
ful erector muscles of the spine, the muscles for moving the 
lower limbs, and the muscles which shut in the abdominal 
and pelvic cavities. 

116. The form and proportion of the Upper Extremities 
relate to the hand, which belongs exclusively to man, and 
gives the power of execution to the human mind : thus, the 
arm is longer than the fore-arm, and this longer than the 
hand, securing greater mobility, flexibility and power of 
adaptation as Ave approach the delicate organs of prehension. 
It is the relative position of the four fingers to the thumb, 
however, which principally stamps the character of the hand, 
as this construction permits its adaptation to every shape, 
and gives that complete dominion which it possesses over the 
various forms of matter. 

117. The Lower Extremities have a strong analogy to 
the upper, the diflerences being only such as are necessary to 
constitute them organs of locomotion rather than of prehen- 
sion ; hence, their solidity at the expense of their mobility. 
The shafts of long hones are made hollow, giving not only 
lightness but strength, according to the well-known principle 
in mechanics, that, with a given amount of material, a hol- 
low cylinder will sustain more weight than a solid one, both 
being of the same height. 

118. The Joints. The uses of the joints are to enable the 
body to sustain greater weight (as several short pillars will 
support more weight than a single pillar of the same height 
and thickness) ; to diminish the force of blows or shocks ; to 



52 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

afford freedom of movement; to provide fulcrums for the 
various levers ; to modify the direction in the action of mus- 
cular power, and to determine the plane of action. 

119. For simple union without movement, we find the 
Immovable joint; for great strength and little movement, 
the Mixed joint; and for full freedom of movement, the 
Movable joint. Of the movable joints for motion in one 
plane and two directions, we find the Hinge-joint; for the 
gliding movement, the Planiform joint; and for free rotary 
motion, the Ball-and-Socket joint. (Figs. 18, 30, 31.) 




Fig. 33. A Side View of the Bones of the Foot, showing its Arched Form. The 
arch rests upon the heel behind, and the ball of the toes in front. — 1, The lower part of 
the tibia. 2, 3, 4, 5, Bones of the tarsus. 6, The metatarsal bone. 7, 8, The bones of the 
great toe. 

120. The use of the Synovia is to enable the surfaces of the 
bones to move more easily upon each other, preventing fric- 
tion and consequent wear. No machine of human invention 
manufactures for itself the necessary lubricating fluid, but 
in the animal mechanism it is supplied in proper quantities, 
applied in the proper places and at the proper time. 

121. Cartilage tips the articular extremities of bones, 
facilitating the sliding motion and deadening shocks ; and in 
various parts of the body it serves as an elastic cushion, 
yielding on compression and regaining its form when the 
pressure is removed. (Figs. 30, 31.) 

122. The function of the Ligaments is to bind togethei 



THE BONES. 53 

the bones of the system. By them the lower jaw is bound to 
the temporal bones, and the head to the neck ; they extend 
the length of the spinal column, between the vertebrae, and 
from one spinous process to another ; they bind the ribs to 
the vertebrae and the sternum ; the sternum to the clavicle ; 
the clavicle to the first rib and the scapula ; the scapula to 
the humerus; the bones of the fore-arm at the elbow-joint, 
and also at the wrist ; the bones of the wrist to each other, 
and to those of the hand; and these to each other, and to 
those of the fingers and thumb. In the same manner they 
bind the bones of the pelvis together ; and these to the femur 
or thigh-bone ; and this to the two bones of the leg and the 
patella or knee-pan ; and so on to the ankle, foot and toes, as 
in the upper extremities. The bones of the wrist and those 
of the foot are as firmly fastened as if bound by clasps of 
steel. 

123. The Periosteum serves to transmit blood-vessels into 
the bone, thus furnishing nutriment; it gives insertion to 
muscles, tendons and ligaments ; obviates the effects of fric- 
tion ; strengthens the whole skeleton as an investing mem- 
brane, and possesses some agency in the process of ossifi- 
cation. 

124. We have noticed but a few of the many wonderful 
examples of skill, wisdom and benevolence exhibited in the 
internal framework of the animal fabric. Each bone, how- 
ever small, illustrates some profound principle of science; 
each is perfect in its adaptation to a specific use. The whole 
structure is a faultless piece of mechanism, in which every 
known principle of architecture and dynamics has been 
brought into service. 

§ 10, Hygiene of the Bones.— J^ecf o/ Exercise upon the Bones of 
Children. Effect of Compression — Of Stooping. Treatment of Frac- 
tures — Of Sprains — Of Felons. 

125. The health of the bones is promoted by regular exercise. 
The kind and amount of labor should be adapted to the age, 
health and development of the bones ; neither the cartilaginous 



54 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



bones of the child, nor the brittle bones of the aged man, are 
adapted to long-continued and severe exercise. While pro- 
tracted exercise in childhood is injurious, moderate and regu- * 
lar labor favors a healthy development and consolidation of 
the bones. 

126. The lower extremities of the very young are not adapted 
to sustaining much weight; hence, to induce a child to walk, 
or to stand by chairs, while the bones of the lower limbs are 
imperfectly developed, is ill advised and productive of serious 
injury; "bow" legs are thus produced. The benches or 




Pig. 34. Position when the feet are supported. 
Fig. 35. Position when a seat is too high. 

chairs for children in a school-room should permit the feet to 
rest upon the floor, otherwise the weight of the limbs below 
the knee may cause the flexible bone of the thigh to become 
curved ; the chairs should also have suitable backs, and the 
child be allowed frequent change of position. (Figs. 34, 35.) 
127. Compression of the chest should he avoided. In youth 
the ribs are very flexible, and a small amount of pressure 
will increase their curvature, particularly at the lower part 



THE BOXES. 



55 



of the waist. By tight or " snug" clothing the ribs are drawn 
down and the space between them lessened, so that in some 
instances the anterior extremities of the lower ribs are brought 
quite together ; hence, the apparel should be loose and sup- 
ported by the shoulders, both for children and adults. 

128. An erect 2D osition both in sitting and standing should he 

carefully maintained. The spinal column naturally curves 

from front to back, but not from side to side. The admirable 

arrangement of the bones and cartilages permits a great variety 

Fig. 36. Fig. 37. 





Fig. 36. A Defoemed Thorax ajjd Spinal Column, 
Fig. 37. A Chest Fashionably Deformed. 

of motions and positions, the elasticity of the cartilages always 
tending to restore the spine to its natural position ; but if a 
stooping or a lateral curved posture be continued for a long 
time, the compressed edges of the cartilages lose their power 
of reaction, and finally one side becomes thinned, while the 
other is thickened. These wedge-shaped cartilages produce 
permanent curvature of the spine, which is often attended 
with disease of the spinal cord. (Figs. 36, 37.) 



56 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

129. The student, seamstress and artisan frequently acquire 
a stooping position by inclining forward to bring their books 
or work nearer the eyes. The desk of the pupil is often 
higher than the elbow as it hangs from the shoulder at rest, 
consequently, in drawing, writing and often in studying, one 
shoulder is elevated and the other depressed, distorting the 
spine. In the daily employments of life, children should 
early be taught to use the left hand and shoulder more freely. 
Distortions of the chest necessarily accompany deformity of 
the spine, and disease of the heart and lungs follows, compared 
to which the loss of symmetry is a minor consideration. 

130. Eminent physicians both in this country and Europe 
state that, among the fashionably educated, not one female in 
ten escapes deformities of the shoulders and spinal column. 
The student, to prevent as well as to cure slight curvatures 
of the spine, should walk with a book or a heavier weight 
upon the head. Porters and laborers of some countries bear 
very great burdens upon their heads, and walk at a rapid 
pace with comparative ease. 

Observation 1st. — Fractured or diseased bones cmd ligaments should re- 
ceive special attention. In fractured bones, a surgeon's care is not only 
needed to adjust the parts, but for several weeks to watch the reunion, 
that the limb may not be crooked or shortened. In sprains, the liga- 
ments are not usually lacerated, but strained and twisted, causing much 
pain, and afterward inflammation and weakness of the joints. To effect 
a cure, there should be absolute rest for days, and perhaps weeks, using 
tepid bathing and prolonged moderate friction. More persons are 
crippled from ill-cared-for sprains than fractured bones. Persons en- 
feebled by disease, particularly scrofula, cannot be too assiduous in 
adopting an early and proper treatment of injured joints, to prevent the 
affection called " white swelling." 

Observation 2d. — The disease called "Felon'^ is an inflammation that 
commences in or beneath the periosteum. It is attended with severe, 
throbbing pain, and the unyielding structure of the parts prevents much 
swelling. The only successful treatment of this painful affection is an 
early, free opening through the periosteum to the surface of the bone. 
The earlier the incision is made, the less the risk and the suffering. 
The same treatment must be adopted in inflammation of large bones. 



THE BONES. 



57 



^ 11. Comparative Osteoj^ogy.— Classification of Animals according 
to their Plan of Structure. Classification of Vertebrata. Compare 
Bones of the Head of Vertebrates — The Vertebral Column — The 
Thorax— The Extremities. Characteristics of Annulosa—Mollusca— 
Jtadiata — Protozoa. 

131. The tissues, cells and chemical composition of all 
animals are essentially the same, but the different appoint- 
ments in the plan of creation require special conformations. 
Animals have therefore been arranged, according to their 
plan of structure, into two divisions— Vertebrata and Inverte- 
hrata; these into five sub-kingdoms — Vertebra' ta, An'nulosa 
(Articulata), Mollus'ca, Radia'ta and Protozo'a."^ 

Fig. 38. Fig. 39. 





4 ■• 



Fig. 38. Diagram of a Teansveese Section of a Veetebeate.— 1, The -walls. 2, The 
digestive organs. 3, The haemal. 4, The ganglia. 5, The spinal cord. 6, Spinal column. 

Fig. 39. Diagram of a Teansveese Section of an Invertebrate.— 1, The walls. 2, 
The digestive organs. 3, The hsemal organs. 4, The ganglia. 

* The brief outlines of Zoology introduced in this work are arranged 
into two divisions, from Lamarck. Writers on Natural History, as Lin- 
naeus, Cuvier, Edwards, Nicholson and others, have adopted different 
sub-kingdoms numerically. I have chosen to arrange them into five 
suh-kingdoms. 

When organs in different animals agree with one another in the plan 
of structure, they are said to be ** homologous f^ as the arm of a man, the 
wing of a bird. When organs in different animals perform the same 
functions, they are said to be '"analogous;" as the wing of a bat, the 
wing of a fly. In the great diversity of animals and in their varied 
structures, they may be both homologous and analogous, or in part 
homologous and in part analogous, or homologous and not analogous. 



58 " ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

132. If a Vertebrate is divided transversely, two separate 
cavities are brought to view : the posterior or upper cavity- 
contains the cerebro-spinal axis (spinal cord) ; the other, the 
ganglia, the haemal or circulatory and the digestive organs. 
If an Invertebrate is divided transversely, only one cavity is 
seen ; this contains the h?emal and digestive organs, with the 
ganglia. In Vertebrates the ganglia are placed on the dorsal 
or upper side of the cavity, and the haemal organs on the 
ventral or lower side. In Invertebrates the ganglia are found 
on the lower and the haemal organs on the upper side. 

133. The sub-kingdom Vertebrata have an internal skele- 
ton ; in general, a spinal column or back-bone. A distinctive 
characteristic of vertebrates is that the brain and spinal cord 
are shut off from the general cavity of the body. In this sub- 
kingdom are classed Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Ampliihians 
and Fishes. 

134. Mammalia or Mammals include Man and all the 
ordinary quadrupeds. 

135. Birds are oviparous,* vertebrate animals, with a 
double circulation, and covered with feathers. 

136. Reptiles comprise a class of vertebrates with incom- 
plete circulation, breathe air from birth, and are generally 
covered with scales or plates. 

137. Amphibians are so formed as to live on land, and 
for a long time under water. Their distinguishing charac- 
teristic is that they invariably undergo some kind of meta- 
morphosis after birth. At first the general conformation of 
the body resembles fishes ; at this stage they breathe by gills, 
subsequently they change form, and in their adult state pos- 
sess air-breathing lungs. The skin is generally naked. 

138. Fishes are oviparous, vertebrate animals, and breathe 
by gills. They differ in the form of their bodies, but the out- 
line is simple. They are usually covered with scales. 

139. The Bones of the Head of other Mammals re- 
semble, in many points, those of man. In some quadrupeds, 

* Lat,, ovum, egg, and -pario, to produce. 



THE BONES. 59 

as the horse and the cow, the frontal bone is in two parts ; iu 
others, the two parietal bones are united : between the two 
upper maxillary bones are two small bones called inter- 
maxillary ; the lower jaw consists of two pieces. In Birds, 
the bones of the head, in number and position, resemble 
mammals, but they are early united, leaving no trace of the 
sutures. The superior mandible or upper jaw of the bird is 
so articulated with the cranium as to admit of motion inde- 
pendent of the lower jaw (which never occurs in mammals), 
and the inferior mandible, instead of being articulated directly 
with the cranium, is connected through the intermedium of 
a distinct bone called the Os Quadratwn. In Reptiles the 
head-bones are irregular in form, and greatly vary in num- 
ber. In Amphibia the skull always articulates with, or is 
jointed to, the spinal column by two articular surfaces or 
condyles. In Fishes the bones of the head are numerous and 
irregular, and their study is a matter of much interest in ac- 
quiring a full knowledge of Natural History. (Figs. 18, 40, 41.) 
140. The Vertebral Column of other Mammals, with 
slight modifications, is like that of man. The difference is 
chiefly in the number of the vertebrae in the caudal part of the 
column. The number of cervical vertebrae is almost invariably 
seven ; the dorsal average thirteen ; the lumbar, from three . 
to seven ; the sacral, usually four ; the caudal, from four (the 
number of the coccyx in man) to forty-six. The length of 
any part of the column seems to depend not so much upon the 
number of the vertebrae as upon their length; thus we find 
seven cervical vertebrae in the long-necked Giraffe and in the 
short-necked Mole. In Birds, the flexibility of the neck en- 
ables any part of the body to be reached by the beak. This 
is owing to the ball-and-socket articulations, and to the great 
number of cervical vertebrae, which in the Swan are twenty- 
four. The dorsal vertebrae vary from seven to eleven, and 
are generally consolidated into one, but in birds that do not 
fly they remain distinct and movable. The lumbar and 
sacral vertebrae are united into one. The last caudal vertebrae 
has a large, strong process, shaped like the letter V, for the 



60 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



support of the large feathers, which act as a rudder in flight. 
In Beptiled the vertebrse vary in number from twenty-four to 
four hundred, as in the serpent called Python. In Amphibians 
sometimes the vertebrse are hollow at both ends, and some- 




times hollow behind and rounded in front. In Frogs the 
gpinal column is short; the dorsal vertebrse are very long. 
In Fishes there are but two kinds of vertebrse, the dorsal and 
the caudal, and these vary in number from twenty to two 



THE BONES. 61 

hundred. The vertebral bodies present a conical, cup-like 
depression on each side, which contains a gelatinous fluid 
having the same use as the elastic intervertebral substances 
in mammals. (Figs. 18, 40, 41, 42, 43.) 



Fig. 41. Skeleton of a Bird. — 1, The head. 2, Cervical vertebrae. 3, Dorsal and lum- 
bar vertebrse. 4, Scapula. 6, Clavicle. 6, Coracoid bone. 7, Sternum, 8, Humerus. 
9, Radius. 10, Ulna. 11, Carpus. 12, Metacarpus. 13, 13, Phalanges (fingers). 14, 
Femur. 15, Tibia. 16, Fibula. 17, Tarsus. 18. Metatarsus. 19, Phalanges (toes). 

141. The Sternum of Mammals in general is flat and 
smooth. In Birds it is much extended, and forms the largest 
bone in their bodies. It has upon its anterior surface a ridge 
resembling the keel of a ship, for the support of the pectoral 
muscles used in flying. The size is proportioned to the 
powers of flight ; hence, in the little Humming-bird, which 
is on the wing most of the day, it reaches the maximum of 
development. Of the Reptiles, Serpents have no sternum, 
but in Turtles it has an extraordinary development, and ex- 
tends from the base of the neck to the commencement of the 

6 



62 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



tail, forming the ventral part of the shell covering. In some 
Fishes, the sternum is represented by. a chain of hones. 
Fig. 42. 




Fig. 42. Skeleton of a Tortoise. — 1, Cervical, 2, Dorsal, 3, Lumbar vertebrae. 4, 
Scapula. 5, Clavicle. 6, Coracoid boue. 13, Humerus. 14, Ulna. 15, Radius. 16, 
Carpus. 17, Phalanges (fingers). 7, Femur. 8, Tibia. 9, Fibula. 10, Tarsus. 11, Meta- 
tarsus. 12, Phalanges (toes). 

142. The Ribs are much alike in Mammals, generally in 
twelve pairs ; in the Horse, however, there are eighteen 
pairs. In Birds the cartilage that unites the rib to the ster- 
num is osseous, giving solidity to the chest. In some Reptiles 
■ — as Lizards and Crocodiles — the ribs are more numerous 
than in mammals and birds, and protect the abdomen as well 
as the chest. In the Turtle the ribs are expanded, forming 
the dorsal part of its shell, or the roof of its portable dwell- 
ing-house. In Serpents the lower or anterior extremities of 



THE BONES. 63 

the ribs have no cartiLage; they aid in progressive movement 
or crawling, as under the skin their ends can be placed on 
the ground like feet. Of the class Amphibia, Frogs and Toads 
have no ribs. In Newts they are rudimentary. In some 
Fishes the ribs are wanting; in others they are very complete, 
and surround the trunk ; in still others they are connected with 
a chain of bones representing the sternum. (Figs. 18, 40, 41.) 

143. The Upper Extremities in Mammals are never want- 
ing. In animals that swim or burrow the humerus is short, 
thus enabling the fore limbs to be used with force; where 
swiftness is required, this bone is long and slender. When 
the hand is used for support instead of prehension, the radius 
loses its power of rotation on the ulna. In the Horse and 
other solid-hoofed animals the same obtains with the fibula 
and tibia. In mammals the hand varies. The fingers or toes 
are never more than five. The middle finger is the most per- 
sistent, being the only one left in the horse. In Birds the 
humerus is larger and stouter than the thigh-bone, contrary 
to the relative proportion in man. 

144. The obvious use of the Clavicle is to maintain the 
shoulders apart ; hence in quadrupeds, where its presence 
would be a defect, it is wanting, as in the horse and cow. 
The clavicles of Birds are peculiar ; they unite at their ante- 
rior extremity, forming a forked bone called furcula, or wish- 
bone. In birds of powerful flight, as the Eagle, the clavicles 
are very strong ; in others, as the domestic Turkey, they are 
weak. Connecting the scapula to the sternum is the cor'acoid 
bone, which is placed side by side with the furcula, and is the 
main source of support to the wings in flight. In some Rep- 
tiles, as the Tortoise, both the clavicle and the coracoid bone 
are found, while in others, as Serpents, both are w^anting. In 
Fishes the true clavicle is wanting, but in some species there 
is a modified form of the coracoid bone, free at its lower ex- 
tremities, which may, perhaps, be considered as homologous 
with the coracoid bone or clavicle of the higher animals. 

145. The Scapula is present in Mammals, Birds and most 
Reptiles and Fishes. In the horse and cow it is an essential 



64 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



bone. In Birds the scapula is long and narrow. Reptiles, 
Amphibians and Fishes have in general the scapula, but 
variously modified. 

146. The Lower Extremities in Mammals are sometimes 

absent, as in Whales. In quadrupeds, as they are used mainly 

for support and progression, they are less modified than the 

upper extremities. In Birds the femur is short and straight. 

Fig. 43. 




Fig. 43. The Skeleton of a Haddock. 

The tibia is the chief or longest bone of the hind limb. The 
fibula is united to the tibia at various distances down the leg. 
In some Reptiles, as the Tortoise and Lizard, the anterior and 
posterior limbs are composed of bones, which in number, form, 
position and functions much resemble the corresponding ones 
in mammals and birds. In the Serpent tribe the limbs are 
wanting. In Amphibians the limbs are well developed. In 
Fishes the extremities are rudimentary, being represented by 
fins. 

147. The Annulosa* are numerous, embracing animals 
having an external skeleton made up of segments or rings 
arranged along a longitudinal line, and consisting mostly 
of hardened skin. They have a distinct alimentary canal 
shut off from the general cavity of the body. The hsemal or- 
gans may be absent, but when present are found on the dorsal 
aspect. The nervous system is of connected ganglia on the 
ventral side. The limbs, when present, are turned to the 

* Lat., Annulus, a ring. 



THE BONES. 



65 



neural (nerve) aspect. This sub-kingdom is separated into 
two divisions, which include many classes and orders, and 
embrace Beetles, Weevils, Bees, Wasps, Butterflies, House- 
flies, Fleas, Millipedes, Centipedes, Spiders, Scorpions, Lob- 
sters, Crabs, Worms, Leeches. (Figs. 44, 45.) 

Fig. 45. 



Fig. 44. 





Fig. 44. Diagram of an Annulosa. — ^1, Haemal or vascular system. 2, Digestive organs 
3, Ganglia. 

Fig. 45. Diagram op the External Structure op an Insect. — 1, The head carrying the 
eyes and antennae. 2, First segment of the thorax with the first pair of legs. 3, The 
second segment of the thorax with the second pair of legs and the first pair of wings. 4, 
The third segment of the thorax with the third pair of legs and the second pair of wings. 
5, Abdomen without legs. 

148. MoLLUSCA* are mostly soft-bodied animals that are 

usually protected by an external skeleton or shell composed 

of the carbonate of lime. They have an alimentary canal 

that is shut off from the general cavity of the body. If a 

Fig. 46. Fig. 47. 





Fig. 46. Diagram of a Mollusca.— 1, Alimentary canal, 2, Heart. 8, Cerebral ganglion. 
4, Pedal ganglion. 5, Ganglion of digestive organs and muscles. 
Fig. 47. A Species of Sn.\it>. — 1, A round mouth. 

* Lat., Mollis, soft. 



6Q ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

haemal apparatus exists, it is on the dorsal side. The lower 
order have one ganglionic mass ; the higher Mollusca have 
three ganglions connected by nervous cords. The digestive 
organs extend the whole length through the centre of the cav- 
ity of the body. The Mollusca are separated into two divi- 
sions, each of which is divided into classes and orders, em- 
bracing the Nautilus, Cuttle-fishes, Snails, Limpits, Whelks, 
Muscles, Oysters, Scallops, Seamats, etc. (Figs. 46, 47.) 

149. The Radiata embrace animals whose organization 
is much less complete than that of most other animals. The 

alimentary canal communicates 
with the general cavity of the 
body. The nervous system is 
rudimentary or wanting. Dis- 
tinct reproductive organs exist 
in all. Peculiar stinging organs, 
''nettle-cells," are usually pres- 
FiG.48.DuGKAMOPARA.iATA.-The ^nt ) and the different parts of 
star-fish. the economy, instead of being 

disposed in pairs on each side of a longitudinal plane, are 
grouped around a central point or axis. 

150. The Protozoa* forms the lowest division of the ani- 
mal kingdom. They are generally of very minute size, are 
composed of a jelly-like substance, having no distinct internal 
cavity, no nervous system, and the alimentary apparatus 
rudimentary or wanting. Most of them are only seen by the 
aid of the microscope. They abound in the air, are largely 
found in water, and are popularly called "animalculae," or 
"parasites." Some few attain a large size, as the sponge. 

Suggestion. — The varied structure of the four lower sub-kingdoms of 
animals is replete with interest and instruction, but the necessarily lim- 
ited space of this elementary school-book entirely precludes their con- 
sideration. Allow us to advise all who can command the leisure to 
extend this study to the beautiful and wonderful works of creation as 
seen in these parts of the garden of the Lord. 

* Gr., protos, first, and zoon, an animal. 




ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 67 



ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 

66 Why is the Motory Apparatus so called ? Name its organs. 
Chapter IV. — The Bones. 

§6. Anatomy of the Bones. — 67. Of what does the Internal Framework of the body 
consist? State the number and classes of the bones. 68. Name the division of bones of 
the. Head. 69. How many bones compose the Skull ? Give their names and positions. 
70. What is said of the skull-bones? How are they united ? 71. How many bones in the 
face? Name and describe them. The Ear has how many bones ? 72. State the number 
and nami'S of the bones of the Trunk. 73. How is the Thorax formed ? What its natu- 
ral form ? What organ does it contain ? 74. What is said of the Sternum ? 75. Describe 
the Ribs. Distinguish between true and false. Why the floating ribs so called? 76. Of 
what is the Spinal Column composed ? How arranged ? Speak of the Intervertebral 
ligaments. 77. Of what is the Pelvis composed? 78. Describe the Innominatum. 79. 
What is the Sacrum? 80. What changes occur in the Coccyx during life? 81. Mention 
the number and names of the bones of the Upper Extremities. 82. Where is the Scapula 
situated? 83. To what is the Clavicle attached? 84. Describe the Hitmerus. 85. What 
is the Ulna? 86. What is the position of the Radius? With what does it articulate? 
87. Speak of the number and arrangement of the bones of the Carpus. 88. State the 
arrangement of the Metacarpal bones. 89. How many bones in the phalanges of the 
fingers? 90. How many in the Lower Extremities? What their names? 91. What is 
said of the Femur? 92. Patella? 93. Tibia? 94. Fibula? 95. Tarsus? 96. Of how 
many bones does the Metatarsus consist? 97. How many do the phalanges of the toes 
contain? 98. How are joints formed? Name the groups of articulations. 99. Mention 
and describe each kind of immovable joints. 100. What are the mixed joints? Give 
examples. 101. What is said of movable joints? How many kinds? Describe each. 

§ 7. Histology of the Bones. — 102. What is the character of the primitive basis of bone ? 
State the changes previous to ossification. 103. State the mode of ossification. 104. 
What are the structure and texture of the long bones? Where is the Medulla found? 
105. Distinguish between the Periosteum and Endosteum. 106. Of what service is Car- 
tilage ? How arranged ? 107. Of what use the Synovial membrane ? Name and describe 
its kinds. Observation. 108. What are found in connection with the Synovial mem- 
brane ? Describe the several kinds of ligaments. 

§ 8, Chemistry of the Bones. — 109. Of what are the bones composed? Mention the 
mineral constituents. Observation. 

§■ 9. Physiology of the Bones. — 110. Name the uses of the Bones. 111. What qualities 
found in bones? 112. What advantages result from the structure and arrangement of 
the skull-bones? 113. Mention the offices of the spinal column. 114. What purpose do 
the Ribs serve? 115. State the offices of the Pelvis. 116. What is said of the form and 
proportion of the Upper Extremities as relating to the hand? 117. Compare the Lower 
Extremities with the Upper. Why are the shafts of the long bones hollow ? 118. Enu- 
merate the uses of the joints. 119. State the purposes of the different classes of joints. 
120. Give the use of the Synovia. 121. What is said of Cartilage? 122. Speak of the 
function of the Ligaments. 123. Of what service the Periosteum? 124. What is illus- 
trated by each bone? 

g 10. Hygiene of the Bones. — 125. What is the influence of exercise on the health of 
the bones? How should it be taken? 126. To what are the lower extremities of the 
very young not adapted? 127. What should be avoided? Why? 128. Why should an 
erect position be maintained? 129. How are distortions of the body produced? 130. 
What statement by eminent physicians? How may slight curvatures of the spine be 
prevented or cured ? Observations. 



68 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

g 11. Comparative Osteology. — 131. Name the divisions of the animal kingdom. 132. 
Give the distinctions of the two divisions. 133. Give fhe classes of the vertebrata. 134. 
What animals are included in the class Mammalia? 135. Name the characteristics 
of Birds. 136. Of Reptiles. 137. Of Amphibians. 138. Of Fishes. 139. What is said 
of the bones of the head in Mammals? Birds? Reptiles? Amphibia? Fishes? 140. 
Compare the vertebral column of Mammals. What is said of it in Birds? Reptiles? 
Amphibia? Fishes? 141. Speak of the sternum of Mammals. Birds. Reptiles. Fishes. 
142. Describe the ribs in the different classes. 143. Give the use of the upper extremities 
in some Mammals. In Birds. 144. Why not a clavicle in the ox ? Describe the clavicle 
of Birds. Reptiles. Fishes. 145. Describe the scapula in Mammals. 146. Speak of the 
lower extremities in Mammals. Birds. Reptiles. Amphibians. Fishes. 147. Describe 
the sub-kingdom Annulosa. 148. The Mollusca. 149, The Radiata. 150. The Protozoa. 



UNIFIC REVIEW. 

[Compare 67 with 131-133 and 147-150.] 
What constitutes the Skeleton ? What is said of it in the different sub- 
kingdoms? 

[Compare 68-71 with 139.] 

Compare the bones of the Head of man with those of the other classes of 
vertebrata. 

[Compare 72-80 with 140-142.] 

Name the bones of the Trunk. Are they all found in the lower animals ? 
Compare these bones in the different classes of vertebrata. 

[Compare 81-89 with 143-146.] 
Name the bones of the Upper Extremities. What peculiarity in these 
bones in some animals ? 

[Compare 90-97 with 146.] 
Describe each bone of the Lower Extremities. 

[Compare 102, 103 with 7-11 and 131.] 
What is said of the earliest organic form of living things ? 

[Compare 105 with 17 and 123.] 
What tissue in the Periosteum ? Use of this membrane ? 

[Compare 108 with 17.] 
What tissue forms the Ligaments ? 

[Compare 109 with 40, 49 and 63.] 
Name both the organic and inorganic matter in bones. 

[Compare 125 with 185, 261 and 330.] 
What is necessary to the health of the bones ? 




Fig. 48. A. Human Skeleton.— 1, 1, Spinal column. 2, Skull. 4, Sternum. 5, Ribs. 
7, Clavicle. 8, Humerus. 10, Radius. 11, Ulna. 13, Wrist. 14, Hand. 15, Haunch- 
bone. 16, Sacrum. 18, Thigh-bone. 19, Patella. 21, Fibula. 22, Tibia. 23, Ankle- 
joint. 24, Foot. 25, 26, Ligaments of the clavicle, sternum and ribs. 27, 28, 29, Liga- 
ments of the shoulder, elbow and wrist. 30, Brachial artery. 31, Ligaments of the hip- 
joint. 34, 35, 36, Ligaments of the patella, knee and ankle. 

B. Skeleton of a Bird. — ^1, The head. 2, Cervical vertebrae. 3, Dorsal and lumbar 
vertebrae. 4, Scapula. 5, Clavicle. 6, Coracoid bone. 7, Sternum. 8, Humerus. 9, 
Radius. 10, Ulna. 11. Carpus. 12, Metacarpus. 13, 13, Phalanges (fingers). 14, 
Femur. 15, Tibia. 16, Fibula. 17, Tarsus. 18. Metatarsus. 19, Phalanges (toes). 

C. Skeleton of a Tortoise.— 1, Cervical, 2, Dorsal, 3, Lumbar vertebrae. 4, Scapula. 
5. Clavicle. 6, Coracoid bone. 13, Humerus. 14, Ulna. 15, Radius. 16, Carpus. 17, 
Pl\Hlanges (fingers). 7, Femur. 8, Tibia. 9, Fibula. 10, Tarsus. 11, Metatarsus. 12, 
Phalanges (toes). 



70 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



SYNTHETIC TOPICAL REVIEW. 



The Skeleton and its uses, 






Nnmber and classes, 






Head, Trunk, 






Upper Extremities, 






Lower Extremities, 


^6. 




Joints, 


Anatomy of. 




Definition and classes of Joints, 






Immovable Joints, 






Mixed, Movable, 






Peculiar forms of Movable. 






Formation of Temporary Cartilage, 






Intra-cartilaginous mode of ossification, 






Structure of the Long Bones, 


?7. 




Periosteum, Endosteum, 


Histology of. 




Cartilages of the Joints, 






Synovial membrane. Ligaments. 






Chemical Composition, 


i ^8. 

r Chemistry of. 




Experiment showing earthy and animal matter. 




General uses of, 






Adaptation of their structure to their uses. 






Skill as shown in the Skull, 






" " Spinal Column, 






" " Eibs, 






" " Pelvis, 




Chap. IV. 


" " Upper Extremities, 




The Bones. 


" " Lower Extremities, 


?9. 

■ Physiology 
of. 




" " Long Bones, 
The uses of the Joints, 




Classification of the Joints, 






Of Movable Joints, 






Function of the Synovia, 






" Cartilages, 






" Ligaments, 






" Periosteum, 






Perfection of this part in the animal fabric. 






EfTect of exercise upon the bones of children. 






" compression. 






" stooping. 


§10. 




Treatment of Fractures, 


Hygiene of. 




" Sprains, 






" _ Felons. 






Classification of Animals, 






" Vertebrates, 






Compare Spinal Column of Vertebrates, 


Ul. 




" Bones of the Head, 


Comparative 




" " Thorax, 


Osteology. 




" " Extremities, 






Classification of Invertebrates. 







Give the Human and Comparative Anatomy and Histology of the 
Bones ; the Chemistry, the Physiology and the Hygiene. 



CHAPTER V. 



THE MUSCLES. 

I IS. Anatomy of the Muscles. — Number and General Arrange- 
ment. Modes of Attachment. ^Characteristie Property of Muscles. 
Muscles of the Head and Neck — Of the Trunk — Of the Upper Extremi- 
ties — Of the Lower Extremities. 

151. The Muscular System is that by which animals 
perform all motion. The number of muscles in the human 
body is more than five 

hundred. In general they ^^^' ^^' 

form about the skeleton 
two layers, distinguished 
as superficial and deep- 
seated muscles ; yet in some 
parts there are three, four, 
five, and even six layers. 
(Fig. 49.) These layers 
of muscle constitute the 
firm "ruddy flesh" which 
is found everywhere be- 
neath the skin. 

152. The muscles are 
usually attached to the 
bones, either directly or 
indirectly, by means of the 
inelastic but flexible ten- 
dons, which may be cord- 
like, either round or flat- 
tened, or membraniform, 
supporting the organs which they surround, and named 
Aponeuroses or Faseice. 

153. The characteristic property of the muscles is con- 

71 




Fig. 49. A Transverse Section op the Neck. 
— The separate muscles, as tbey are arranged 
in layers, with their investing fascia, are well 
represented. 12, Tlie trachea. 13, The oeso- 
])hagus. 14, Carotid artery and jugular vein. 
28, One of the bones of the spinal column. 
(The iigures in the white space represent 
fascia ; other figures, muscles.) 



72 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

tradility ; by means of certain stimulants, muscles swell and 
shorten themselves, so as to draw together any two points to 
which their ends are attached ; as each muscle has its an- 
tagonist, when one shortens or contracts, the other relaxes. 
The muscles passing over the back of a joint are usually 
called Extensors, because they serve to extend the part be- 
yond the joint, while those lying in front of the joint are, for 
the opposite reason, called Flexors. (Fig. 55.) 

154. Muscles of the Head and Neck. — By the con- 
traction of the Oeeipito- Frontalis the eyebrows are elevated. 
The Orbicularis Palpebrarum closes the eyelids, and, by press- 
ing back the ball of the eye, it also compresses the lachrymal 
gland and causes a flow of tears. The Orbicularis Oris closes 
the mouth and enables the lips to embrace any substance 
placed between them. It receives into its periphery the fibres 
of the surrounding muscles, which meet here as in a common 
centre. It enters largely into the diversified expressions of 
the countenance, and in no one respect exhibits more varied 
adaptation than in the performance on wind instruments. 
The Masseter and Temporal give motion to the lower jaw. 
The Sterno-Cleido- Mastoid J when both sides contract, draws 
the head forward or elevates the sternum. (Fig. 50.) 

155. Muscles of the Anterior Part op the Trunk. 
— The Pectoralis Major draws the arm by the side and across 
the chest, and also draws the scapula forward. The Serratus 
Magnus elevates the ribs in inspiration. The Obliquus Ex- 
ternus and Rectus Abdominalis exert an equable pressure upon 
the organs contained in the abdominal cavity ; when acting 
together they bend the body forward or elevate the hips; 
they also depress the ribs in respiration. When the muscles 
of but one side act, the body is twisted to that side. 
(Fig. 50.) 

156. Muscles of the Posterior Part of the Trunk. 
— The Trapezius, Bhomboideus Major and Minor draw the 
scapula back toward the spine; the two latter draw the 
scapula upward toward the head and slightly backward ; the 
former draws the head back and elevates the chin. The 



THE MUSCLES. 



73 




74 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

Latissimus Dorsi draws the arm by the side and backward. 
The Serratus Posticus Inferior depresses the ribs in expiration. 

Fig. 51. 




Fid. 51. The Dorsal Muscles. — The first, second and part of the third la3'er of 
muscles of the back. The first layer is shown on the right, and the second on the left 
side. 1, The trapezius muscle. 4, The latissimus dorsi muscle. 5, The deltoid muscle. 
7, 8, The gluteus medius muscle. 9, The gluteus maximus muscle. 11, 12, The rhom- 
boideus major and minor muscles. 16, The serratus posticus inferior muscle. 22, The 
serratus magnus muscle. 

157. Muscles of the Upper Extremities. — The Del- 
toid raises the arm from the side of the body to a horizontal 
position. The Biceps flexes the fore-arm on the arm, as in 
preparing for striking a blow. The Triceps extends the fore- 
arm on the arm ; it lies on the back of the humerus, and is 



THE MUSCLES. 75 

used in striking a blow. The Flexor Carpi JRadialis passes 
under the annular ligament and bends the hand on the wrist. 
The Flexor Carpi Ulnaris bends the hand in the direction of 
the ulna. The Flexor Digitorum bends the fingers. The Ex- 
tensor Digitorum extends the fingers. The Extensor Carpi 
Radialis extends the wrist on the fore-arm. (Fig. 50.) 

158. Muscles of the Lower Extremities. — The Ghdei 
give power of retaining the erect position. The Sartorius 
bends the lower extremities into the position assumed by the 
tailor at his work. .The Rectus Femoris, Vastus Externus and 
Vastus Internus extend the leg on the thigh. The Triceps 
Abductor Femoris bends the thigh on the pelvis, rotates it 
outwardly and acts powerfully in bending the limbs inward. 
The Biceps Femoris forms the outer hamstring, assists in turn- 
ing the leg outward, and also flexes it upon the thigh. The 
Extensor Digitorum splits into four tendons which pass under 
the annular ligament, and extend the four lesser toes and flex 
the foot. The Peroneus Longus extends the foot and inclines 
the sole obliquely forward. The Gastrochnemius Externus 
raises the body in walking, and extends the foot on the leg. 
The Tendo-Achilles (heel-cord) is formed by the conjoined 
tendons of the gastrochnemius externus and internus (and 
plantaris). (Fig. 50.) 

I 13. HiSTOi-OGY OF THE MuscLES. — Analysis of a Musde. Sheaths of 
Musd^s. Law of Muscular Contradion. Classes of Muscles. Ten- 
dons, Blood-vessels and Nerves. 

159. A Muscle is separable into bundles of fibres called Fas- 
ciculi, each bundle or fasciculus into smaller fibres (smaller fas- 
ciculi), each of the smaller fibres into a multitude of filaments 
or Jibrillce (fibrils), and each filament or fibrilla into cells ar- 
ranged in a linear series. Hence, a single muscle is com- 
posed of some millions of these fibrillse combined together, 
having the same point of attachment or origin, and concen- 
trating in a tendon which is fixed to a movable part, or the 
point of insertion. (Figs. 7, 52, 53.) 

160. Each muscle is invested by a membranous covering 




76 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

of areolar tissue, named the Perimysium ; from this, thin par- 
titions pass inward between the large and small fasciculi, so 
that were it possible to remove the muscular substance there 
would remain a delicate areolar 
network of the exact shape of 
the muscle and its parts. Each 
elementary fibre or fasciculus is 
<^ """"""" enclosed in a very thin, transpa- 

FiG. 52. Development of Striated ^^^. structureless sheath, Called 
Muscular Fibre from Cells. — a, Simple m • 

cell, h, A pair of cells fused together. Myolem ma. This shcath is CU- 

c, Three cells fused and their contents tircly distiuct frOffi that of the 
assuming the striated character, d, A. . . . , , 

muscular fibre exhibiting its original areolar tlSSUC ; it ISOlatCS Cach 

composition of cells. ultimate fasciculus and prob- 

ably gives off a sheath to each fibril. 

Observation. — Muscles contain bundles of varying size. These, 
whether fasciculi or filaments, may become diseased (inflammation). 
Such disease may abate either without or with decomposition, the for- 
mation of purulent matter (abscesses) in or between the muscles. In all 
such cases an early opening should be had to allow free exit for the 
purulent matter. The deeper the abscess, the more imperative an early 
free opening. 

161. Muscles are of two classes. Striated and Non-Striated, 
The Striated are also called Voluntary, being, in their normal 
action, under the control of the will ; the Non-Striated, Invol- 
untary, acting independently of the will, as the heart, the 
stomach and the intestines. The latter are soft, pale, smooth, 
either roundish or flattened and indistinctly granulated, hav- 
ing no markings or stride ; the former are soft, yellowish, pris- 
matic, and composed of quadrangular particles so arranged 
as to give transverse stride. 

162. The muscular law is that they shall contract toward 
the centre. To accomplish this there must be diversity of 
form, adapting them to different positions. Hence, muscular 
fibres are longitudinal, terminating at each extremity in a 
tendon, forming a spindle-shaped or fusiform muscle; disposed 
like the rays of a fan, converging to a tendinous point, a ra- 
diate muscle ; converging to one side of a tendon running the 



THE MUSCLES. 



77 




Fig. 53, — 1, A Representation of the Direction 
AND Arrangement of the Fibres in a fusiform or 
spindle-shaped muscle. 2, In a radiated muscle. 
3, In a penniform nuiscle. 4, In a bi-penniform 
mascle. t, t. The tendons of a muscle. 



whole length of a muscle, as one side of the plume of a feather 
to its shaft, a pemiifarm muscle ; converging to both sides of 
the tendon like an en- -^ig 53. 

tire feather, a hi-penni- 
foryn muscle; or running 
in a circular direction, 
an orbicular or sphincter 
muscle. (Figs. 50, 53.) 

163. Tendons are 
composed of the ine- 
lastic white-fibrous tis- 
sue, and possess great 
strength. The muscu- 
lar fibres do not cease 
immediately, but inter- 
twine with those of the 
tendons and these with those of the bone. The tendinous and 
muscular fibres are generally parallel, thus being straight in 
the sartorius and oblique in the penniform muscles. In pass- 
ing over bones or other hard parts, they are protected by sy- 
novial bursse. 

Observation — Boils are peculiar abscesses between the muscles, ini- 
mediately under the skin. Some cellular tissue loses its vitality, and 
constitutes what is called the "core." The most effective treatment is 
a very early (as soon as the boil commences) free incision to the bottom 
of the boil ; then apply any warm, soft poultice. 

164. The Blood-vessels do not enter the proper muscular 
substance, but everywhere abound in the areolar tissue by 
which the fibres are enveloped ; hence, the nutriment neces- 
sary for the growth and repair of muscular tissue must be 
absorbed through the Myolemraa. 

165. The Nerves seem to occupy the same position as the 
blood-vessels in relation to the primitive fibres, and therefore 
must also exert their influence through the Myolemraa. The 
nerves of the voluntary muscles are abundant, and chiefly of 
the motor class, or those which preside over motion, having 
nothing to do with sensation, and hence acting /rom the brain 

7* 



78 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

and spinal cord to the muscles ; while the nerves of the invol- 
untary muscles are few and of the sensory class, or those which 
preside over sensation, having nothing to do with motion, 
hence conveying impressions to the brain and spinal cord. 
(Fig. 142.) 

I 14. The Chemistry of the Muscles. — Chemical Composition oj 
Muscle. Chemical Changes attending Muscular Action. The Muscu- 
lar Current. 

166. The chemical composition of muscular tissue cannot 
be precisely known because of the difficulty of isolating the 
fibres from the areolar tissue, blood-vessels and nerves blended 
with them. We give the analysis of Berzelius, by which it 
appears that less than twenty-three per cent, of ordinary meat 
is solid matter : 

Proper muscular substance 15.80 

Gelatin (firm areolar tissue).. 1.90 

Albumen and hsematin 2.20 

Phosphate of lime with albumen 08 

Alcoholic extracts with salts (lactates) 1.80 

Watery extracts with salts 1.05 

Water and loss. 77.17 

100.00 

Inosit, or Muscle Sugar, exists in the juice of flesh. 

167. The proper muscular substance differs from simple 
fibrous tissue in not being resolved into gelatin by boiling. 
It contains a peculiar principle called os'mazmne; this is col- 
ored, soluble in alcohol, and gives to broth its characteristic 
taste and smell. 

168. Muscular action is accompanied by chemical changes 
due to the oxidation of muscular tissue. Quiescent muscle is 
neutral (neither acid nor alkaline) in chemical character, but 
muscle after repeated contractions is acid. Heat is evolved, 
both by chemical action and increased capillary activity, in 
proportion to the amount of exercise performed. The elec- 
trical current known as the "muscular current" is probably 
a result of chemical action. In the entire muscle its path 



THE MUSCLES. 79 

lies along the outside toward the tendons. The direction of 
the total current of the body is from the head downward. 

Observation. — In friction or rubbing the body with the hand, the direc- 
tion of the current should be followed; otherwise, irritation is produced 
rather than the soothing influence desired. This direction is of special 
importance to nurses and watchers in caring for the sick, particularly- 
nervous patients. The effect of friction is sometimes improved by 
moistening the inside of the hand. 

§ 15. Physiology of the Muscles. — Relative Uses of the Bones and 
Muscles. Important Functions of the Muscles. Exciting Agents of 
Muscular Contractility. Relation of the Will and the Musadar Sense 
to Muscular Action. The Muscular Sense as a Source of Enjoyment, 
Importance of Involuntary Movements — Of such Movements being some- 
times Voluntary. Uses of Tendons. The Mechanical Poivers as ex- 
hibited in Muscular Action — Levers — Pulley. Minute Muscles. 

169. To give a clear idea of the relative uses of the Muscles 
and Bones, we quote the comparison of another : " The Bones 
are to the body what the masts and spars are to the ship — 
they give support and the power of resistance ; the Muscles 
are to the bones what ropes are to the masts and spars." 

170. The Uses of the Muscles are manifold : they give 
the beautiful form and symmetry of the exterior of the body ; 
enclose the cavities, and form a firm, defensive, but yielding 
wall in the trunk ; iuvest and move the bones of the limbs ; 
and give to some of the joints their principal protection. By 
means of the contractile property and various mechanical 
contrivances of muscular fibres, the heart pulsates; the blood 
circulates ; respiration is carried on ; the conduits of the 
glands urge on their fluids ; and mechanical aid is afforded 
in the various processes of preparing nutriment for the sys- 
tem. We are indebted to the same for our power of locomo- 
tion ; for our ability to engage in the manifold employments 
of life ; to enjoy its pastimes ; and to hold communication 
with our fellow-men by speech, gesture and the varied ex- 
pressions of the human countenance. 

171. The " Vis Musculosa," or contractility of the muscle, 
is excited on the application of certain stimuli ; these may 



80 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

be Mechanical, as the touch of a sharp instrument ; Chemical, 
as acids and alkalies ; Electrical, as in shocks ; and Vital, 
originating in, or acting through, the nervous system : it is 
by means of the latter that muscular fibre is most frequently 
called into action. 

172. The Voluntary Muscles in their normal condition, 
both in their contraction and relaxation, are subject to the 
control of the Will and the guidance of the Muscular Sense ; 
the will determines an act, and the muscular sense enables us 
to judge of the effort necessary to its performance. By the. 
aid of the Muscular Sense, sometimes with conscious volition 
and sometimes without it, we regulate the force employed in 
all the movements of the body, as lifting weights, balancing 
the body in standing or locomotion, moving the arms in pre- 
hensile or manipulating acts, and exercising the vocal organs. 
The feats of the rope-dancer and trained gymnast are largely 
due to the cultivation of this sense. The exercise of the mus- 
cular sense is a source of positive enjoyment. The person 
who walks with an elastic step, holding the body in easy 
equilibrium, experiences a sensible pleasure unknown to him 
who moves with shuffling gait and apparent distrust of the 
integrity of his muscles ; so in dancing, gymnastic and skating 
exercises, if attention is given to elegance of attitude and 
harmo7iy of motion, there is experienced a pleasure quite dis- 
tinct from that gained by the quickened activities, and which 
is attributable to the muscular sense. 

173. The Involuntary Muscles perform their functions 
wholly independent of the will, and are essential to the action 
of the heart, the digestive organs, the respiratory apparatus, 
and various ducts, blood-vessels and lymphatics. The Divine 
Builder has wisely ordered that these vital operations should 
not be subject to the control of the individual. Again, there 
are certain operations generally entrusted to the involuntary 
muscles that may be temporarily controlled when occasion 
requires, as in respiration ; were these movements never under 
the control of the will, we should be unable to use to any ad- 
vantage the vocal apparatus either in speech or singing, and 



THE MUSCLES. 



81 



were we compelled to breathe at perfectly regular intervals, 
it would be exceedingly difficult to attend to the daily duties 
of life. 

174. Tendons serve to convey the contractile power of 
muscles to the bones ; they are, in themselves, passive oi'gans 
possessing no contractility. In them the evidence of care 
and skillful arrangement is beautifully exhibited. Wherever 
muscular action is wanted, and the presence of muscle would 
be inconvenient or mar the harmony of proportion, or where 
great strength is needed, there we find the small, dense, con- 
ducting tendons ; the slits in the short tendons of the second 
joint to allow the long tendons from the muscles of the fore- 
arm to pass through to the last bones of the fingers afford 
the best conceivable arrangement for compactness, delicacy, 
beauty and utility. (Fig. 54.) 



Fig. 54. 




Fig. 54. Metacarpal and Phalaxgeal Bones of the Fingers, with their Tendons 
AND Ligaments. — 1, Metacarpal bone. 2, Tendon of the superficial flexor. 3, Tendon 
of the deep flexor, passing through a perforation (*) of the superficial flexor. 

175. In the action of the muscles upon the hones, we have 
examples of the three kinds of Levers^ treated of in mechanics. 
In the first kind, the fulcrum is between the power and the 
weight, as in scales, scissors, etc. ; in the second, the weight is 
between the power and the fulcrum, as is seen in moving the 
common wheelbarrow or a door; in the third, the power is 
between the weight and the fulcrum, as in using the fire- 
tongs. In the body the bones are the levers ; the parts 



* A lever is a rod of wood, metal or other substance, movable in one 
plane about a supported point in the rod, called 2i fulcrum. The resist- 
ance to be overcome is called the weight, and the force used in over- 
coming the resistance is called the power. The three kinds of lever are 
distinguished from each other by the relative position of the power, 
weight and fulcrum. 



82 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

attached, the weights ; and the muscles, the powers. The 
fulcruras are the joints, or extremity of the limbs in contact 
with the ground or other resisting substance. 

176. The first kind, of lever is illustrated in the adjustment 
and movement of the skull upon the first vertebra ; the hinge- 
joint is the fulcrum ; the excess in gravity of the parts of the 
head in front of the joint over the parts behind it is the 
weight ; and the muscles extending from the spine to the 
cranium are the power. (Fig. 50.) 

Fig. 65. 




2 

Fig. 55. Diagram of the Third Kind of Lever. — 1, Humerus. 2, Ulna. 3, Biceps 
muscle. 4, Its attachment to the ulna. 6, Its attachment to the humerus. 5, Triceps 
muscle. 7, Its tendon. 8, The ball to be moved. 9, 10, 11, Direction of the ulna and 
ball when the biceps (3) muscle contracts. When the triceps (6) muscle contracts, the 
fore-arm is extended. 

177. The second kind of lever is illustrated in the foot. 
When resting on the ground, with the heel raised, the ful- 
crum is at the ball of the great toe ; the weight is the body 
transmitted through the large bone of the leg; and the power 
is in the muscles of the calf of the leg (Gastrocnemii) acting 
through the tendon of Achilles. (Fig. 50.) 

178. The third kijid of lever is most used in animal me- 
chanics ; as in raising the lower jaw, in raising the shoulder 
and collar-bone, and in the flexion of all the joints of the 
limbs. A familiar example is the elbow. The fulcrum is at 
the joint; the weight is the fore-arm and hand ; and the power 
is in the biceps and brachial muscles. (Figs. 50, 55.) 



THE MUSCLES. 



83 



179. The prmc'qole of the pulley is also used in the arrange- 
ment of the muscles, though less frequently than the lever. 
The annular ligaments which confine the tendons at the wrist 
and at the ankle act as pulleys. A marked example is seen 
in one of the muscles that pull down the lower jaw, called the 
digastric muscle. Another beautiful example is furnished by 
the trochlear muscle of the eye (Figs. 56, 170). 

180. We have noticed 
only the larger of the ex- 
terior layer of .muscles. 
The limits of this work 
will not allow a full view 
of the exquisite beauty be- 
neath ; the layers are of 
various sizes and forms, 
and crossing each other in 
every direction, yet the 
millions of fibres and mul- 
tiplied millions of cells 
perform their assigned 
work in perfect harmony, 
not one interfering with 
the action of another. 

181. Infinite mechanical 
skill is still more wonderfully shown in the nice adjustment 
and accurate movements of the minute muscles, as those of the 
tongue, and the yet finer muscles of the eye and the drum 
of the ear, too small to be seen by the naked eye. 

182. Everywhere the muscular force is one and the same, 
but its applications are innumerable; the instruments are 
constructed upon the same plan, but infinitely varied in form, 
size and arrangement, yet made with the greatest simplicity 
for efiectitig each its particular purpose. 

"In human works, though Labored on with pain, 
A thousand movements scarce one purpose gain ; 
In God's, one single can its ends produce, 
Yet serves to second, too, some other use." 




Fig. 56. Pulley Aeeanqement of a Muscle. 
— 1, Digastric muscle attached to the mastoid 
process of the temporal bone behind the ear. 
2, Its attachment to the lower jaw. 3, Hyoid 
bone. 4, The pulley arrangement of the di- 
gastric and stylo-hyoid muscles. 



84 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

2 16, Hygiene of the Muscles. — Requirements necessary to main- 
tain a Healthy Condition of Muscle. Importance of Freedom from, Com- 
pression — Of Exercise. Conditions to be observed in Muscular Exercise. 
Exercise sometimes Injurious. Effect of Mental Stimulus. Regard 
necessary to the Age and Health — Position of the Body — Proper Mus- 
cular Tension. Education of the Muscles. 

183. Since so much of our happiness and usefulness in life 
depends upon healthy muscles, it is of great importance that 
we seek to understand the laws upon which their normal 
action depends. The first and great essential is, that the 
muscles should he abundantly supplied with pure blood. A pure 
state of the blood requires that the digestive apparatus should 
be in a healthy condition ; that the vital organs should have 
ample volume ; that the lungs should be plentifully supplied 
with pure air ; that the skin should be kept warm by proper 
clothing and clean by bathing, and that it should be acted 
upon by air and sunlight It is also of primary importance 
that there be free circulation of the blood, which may be 
secured hj freedom from compression and by regular and judi- 
cious exercise. 

184. Freedom from compression is requisite to free circula- 
tion, for even a slight pressure upon the delicate, yielding 
blood-vessels checks the flow, thus preventing the necessary 
deposit of materials required by the waste of the system. 

185. Free circulation, and, consequently, muscular power, is 
increased by proper exercise, and decreased by inactivity. It is 
a general law of the system that the action and power of an 
organ are, within a certain limit, commensurate with the de- 
mand made upon them — a law which holds good in the mus- 
cular apparatus. When the muscles are exercised, the flow 
of blood in the arteries and veins is increased, hence the 
muscular fibre increases in size and acts with greater force ; 
while, on the contrary, the muscle that is little used receives 
little nutriment from the sluggish blood, and decreases in size 
and power. 

Illustration. — Tlie muscles of the blacksmith increase in size and be- 
come firm and hard ; those of the student, if not used in gymnastics or 
otherwise, decrease in size and become soft and less firm. 



THE MUSCLES. 85 

186. Relaxationmust follow contraction, or rest must follow 
exercise. Exercise too long continued produces exhaustion, 
and in the exercise of exhausted muscle the loss of material 
exceeds the deposit; also long-continued tension enfeebles, 
and at length destroys, the contractile property. 

Illustration. — The effect of continued tension is seen in the restless- 
ness of children at school after sitting for a time in one position. The 
necessity of frequent recesses is founded upon the organic law that re- 
laxation of muscle must follow contraction. The younger and feebler 
the pupils, the greater is this necessity. 

187. Change of employment often affords the required rest, 
as it brings into action a new set of muscles ; hence the per- 
son of sedentary occupation is rested by general muscular 
exercise, while the person of active occupation is rested by 
that of a sedentary character. 

Illustration. — The needlewoman exhausts the muscles of the back and 
arm ; a brisk walk or some active household employment affords rest. 

188. The muscles should he gradually called into action, for 
while in action they require more blood and nervous fluid 
than when at rest, and these fluids are gradually increased. 
In an alarm of fire, never start "on the run," but "make 
haste slowly" in the first instance, and then gradually in- 
crease your speed. 

189. The muscles should he rested gradually after vigorous 
exercise. If a person has made great muscular exertion, in- 
stead of sitting down immediately to rest, he should continue 
to exercise moderately for a short time and avoid sudden cool- 
ing in a current of air ; additional clothing is often needed. 
The soreness of muscles which have been severely exercised 
is often prevented by bathing and thorough rubbing, followed 
by moderate exercise. 

190. Exercise should he regular and frequent. The system 
needs this means of invigoration as regularly as it needs new 
supplies of food. To devote a few days to the proper action 
of the muscles, and then spend a day inactively, is as incor- 
rect as to take a proper amount of food for a time and then 
to withdraw the supply for a season. 



S6 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

191. Every part of the muscfidar system should have its ap- 
propriate share of exercise. Farming and domestic employ- 
ments are superior as vocations in respect to giving all the 
muscles their due proportion of action. Where the daily 
occupation exercises but a part of the muscles, it should be 
followed by some employment or recreation which will bring 
the others into use. 

1 92. The amount of exercise should he adapted to the age and 
strength of the individual. In youth a portion of the vital or 
nervous energy of the system is expended upon the growth of 
the organs of the body ; consequently, severe labor or exer- 
cise is injurious. 

Observation. — In the campaigns of Napoleon Bonaparte his army was 
frequently recruited by mere boys. He complained to the French gov- 
ernment because he was not supplied with mature men, as the youths 
could not endure the exertions of forced marches. 

193. The proper time for exercise should be observed. As a 
general rule, the morning is a better time for exercise than 
the evening ; the powers of the system are greatest at that 
time. Severe exercise should be avoided immediately before 
or after a meal; the vigor of the system is then required for 
the digestive functions. The same rule should be observed 
regarding mental toil, as the powers of the system are then 
concentrated upon the brain. 

194. The mind exerts a great influence upon the tone and 
contractile energy of the muscles. Muscular exercise will be 
attended with much less fatigue when the muscles act under a 
healthy mental stimulus. This we see illustrated in the ordi- 
nary vocations of life ; if the mind has some incentive, the 
tiresomeness of labor or exercise is greatly diminished. 

"He chooses best whose labor entertains 
His vacant fancy most ; the toil you hate 
Fatigues you soon, and scarce improves your limbs." 

The effect of the mind upon the muscles is seen in the spirit- 
less aspect of many of our boarding-school processions when 
a walk is taken merely for exercise, with no other object in 
view. 



THE MUSCLES. 87 

195. The amount of exercise should be adapted to the health 
of the individual. This direction is of essential importance, 
for what gives vigor to one may bring weakness to another. 
A walk which would invigorate one in health will quite ex- 
haust a feebler person ; hence, the measure of strength must 
be the measure of exercise. 

Observation 1. — In diseases producing great muscidar exhaustion partic- 
ular care and discretion are necessary regarding exercise. In scarlet fever, 
typhoid diseases, etc., the muscular debility is very great, and any mus- 
cular exertion that exhausts, such as moving the patient home when he 
has sickened abroad, or undue exercise during convalescence, is almost 
sure to result injuriously, if not fatally. Exercise should be moderate, 
made pleasant, and followed with proper intervals of rest, and never at 
the discretion of one who is ignorant of the peculiar state of the system. 

2. — In chronic diseases of the digestive organs, lungs and nervous system, 
wdl-directed and persistent exercise of the muscles is essential to recovery. In 
these ailments the exertion of all the muscles repeated frequently is 
"attended with the most compensatory results. Moderation is necessary 
at first, but the exercise should be increased in intensity and duration. 
The aversion of the patient to exercise is often very great, but it should, 
nevertheless, be persistently taken in the same spirit in which he would 
perform any other part of the lifework entrusted to him. Making it a 
business to perform the labor necessary to recovery and entering into it 
with the heart and will, gives the healthy tone and stimulus so import- 
ant in securing the most beneficial results. 

Illustration. — A patient who had suffered long from a combination of 
chronic ills, which had baffled the skill of several physicians, in extreme 
weakness adopted a systematic plan of exercise, commencing with but two 
or three steps at a time and adding a step or two each day, till in six months' 
time she walked regularly three miles a day. 

196. The muscles require an erect position of the body both in 
standing and in sitting. A person can stand longer, walk 
farther, and perform more labor in an erect position than 
when stooping, since fewer muscles are then in a state of ten- 
sion, and, consequently, less draught is made on the nervous 
system. 

197. It is important that the muscles of the child should 
receive due attention, that the shoulders may be thrown back 
and the chest become broad and full. Even when an adult 
has contracted the habit of stooping and has become round- 



88 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



shouldered, it can be measurably, and generally wholly, cor- 
rected by moderate and repeated efforts to bring the shoul- 
ders into proper position. This deformity should receive 
attention in our schools. It may be remedied as well by 
persistent effort on the part of a kind instructor as under the 
stern military drill-sergeant, who never fails to secure the 
erect attitude in his raw recruits. In furnishing school- 
rooms with desks, care should be taken that they be of suffi- 

FiG. 57. Fig. 58. 




Fig. 57 represents an Improper, but not an unusual, position when writing. 
Fig. 58 represents a Proper position when writing. 

cient height to allow the proper attitude when pupils are 
using their books or the pen. This is not only essential to 
health, but to beauty and symmetry of form. (Figs. 57, 58.) 

Observation. — A simple test of the erect position is to stand with the 
back against the wall of a room, with the heels, elbows and back of the 
head touching the wall. The effort required to do this will show the 
amount of departure from the true attitude. 

198. A slight relaxation of the muscles tends to prevent their 
exhaustion. In walking, dancing and most of the mechanical 



THE MUSCLES. 89 

employments the fatigue will be less and the movements more 
graceful if the muscles are slightly relaxed. The same con- 
dition diminishes the jar of cars or coaches. 

199. The muscles require to he educated or trained. Fre- 
quent and systematic use of the muscles at proper intervals 
is necessary to effective action. This education must be con- 
tinued till not only each muscle, but every fibre of the muscle, 
is fully under the control of the will. In this way persons 
become skillful in every employment. The power of giving 
different intonations in reading, speaking and singing, the 
rapid movements in penmanship and in mechanical and agri- 
cultural employments, depend, in a great measure, upon the 
education of the muscles. An individual with trained mus- 
cles will perform a given amount of labor with less fatigue 
and waste to the system than one whose muscles are un- 
trained. 

Observation. — It is exceedingly important that correct movements be 
insisted upon at the commencement of any muscular training, as it is very 
difficult to change a movement which has been long practiced. If a 
child holds his pen improperly during his early lessons, he will prob- 
ably never become an easy and elegant writer. 

§ 17. Comparative Myology. — Compare Muscles of other Mammals 
with those of Man. Muscles of Birds — Of Reptiles — Of A mphibia — Of 
Fishes. 

200. The muscles of all Mammals in their general plan 
resemble those of Man, the modifications in number, form, 
position and relative size being only such as adapt them to 
the habits and necessities of the particular species. The 
color of the muscle is deepest in the Carnivora (flesh-eaters), 
and palest in the Rodentia (gnawers). 

201. The muscular system of Birds is remarkable for the 
distinctness and density of their fasciculi, for the deep-red 
color of those employed in vigorous action and their marked 
separation from the tendons, which are of a pearly-white color 
and have a peculiar tendency to ossification. This high de- 
velopment results from the rapid circulation of warm, rich, 
highly-oxygenated blood through the extent of the respira- 



90 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



tory system. The energy of the muscular contraction in this 
class is in the ratio of the activity of the vital functions. In 
Birds the muscles are varied to meet the habits, wants and 
condition of the several species and orders. 

Fig. 59. 




202. The muscles of the Reptiles are always pale in color, 
and the fibres are tenacious of their contractility ; the energy 
of their contraction in some instances and on some occasions 
is great, but it cannot be continuously exercised, such power 



THE MUSCLES. 



91 



being soou exhausted. The form, size and relative number 
of the muscles are as various as in mammals and birds. 

In Reptiles the muscular system of the trunk reaches its 
maximum development in Serpents, and its minimum devel- 




opment in the Tortoise. The mandibular development is gen- 
erally large, while that of the limbs is comparatively small 
or entirely wanting. 



92 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



203. In the Amphibians, portions of the Myocom'mas or 
flakes become grouped into three longitudinal muscles cor- 
responding to the "spinalis dorsi," "longissimus dorsi/' 
and sacrolumbalis of Mammals. 

204. In Fishes there is a modification of the active motor 
organs, and a marked deviation from the fundamental ver- 




FiQ. 61. Muscles of the Tortoise.— 1, Digastricus. 2, 3, Deltoides. 4, Serratus Mag- 
nus. 5, 6, Triceps Bracliii. 7, Biceps Bracliii. 8, Ulnaris Internus. 9, Flexores Digito- 
rum. 10, Sartorius. 11, 12, Gastrocnemius. 13, Triceps Adductor. 

tebral type. The chief masses of the muscular system are 
disposed on each side of the trunk in a series of vertical 
plates or flakes, corresponding in number to the vertebrse. 
Each lateral flake (myocomma) is attached by its inner bor- 
der to the osseous and fibrous parts of the corresponding seg- 
ment of the skeleton within ; by its outer border, to the skin ; 



THE MUSCLES. 



93 



and by its fore and hind surfaces, to the septum between it 
and the contiguous myocommas or flakes. The gelatinous 
tissue of these septa is 
dissolved by boiling, and 
the muscular segments 
or plates are then easily 
separated, as we find in 
carving fish for the 
table. Each flake is ar- 
ranged in a zigzag man- 
ner. The muscular tissue 
of fishes is usually color- 
less, sometimes it is opal- 
ine or yellowish, but it is 
white when boiled. 

205. All movement is 
attended and produced 
by contraction of mus- 
cles ; and in a very large 
portion of the four lower 
sub-kingdoms of animals, 
composing the Inverte- 
brata, the muscles are so 
minute that they cannot 
be so well demonstrated, 
yet it is probably true 
that in structure, in ap- 
pointment and in varied 
use they may be as com- 
plete and wonderful as those of the Vertebrata. Among all 
domestic animals, as the horse, ox and fowl, the same hygienic 
laws relative to protection, food, air, light and exercise are 
equally applicable as to man. 




Fig. 62. Muscles of the Fish.— a, h, c, and 1, 2, 
i, The zigzag arrangement of the myocomma. 



94 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 

Chapter V. — The Muscles. 

§13. Anatomy of the Muscles.— Ibl. Define Muscular System. Give the number of 
muscles. How distinguished? 152. Give the attachment of the muscles. 153. State 
their characteristic property. Define Extensors and Flexors. 154. State the office of the 
Occipito-Frontalis ; of the Orbicularis Palpsebrarum ; of the Orbicularis Oris; of the Mas- 
eeter and Temporal; of the Sterno-Cleido-Mastoid. 155. Of the Pectoralis Major; of the 
Serratus Magnus ; of the Obliquus Externus and Rectus Abdominalis. 156. Of the Tra- 
pezius, Rhomboideus Major and Minor; of the Latissimus Dorsi ; of the Serratus Posti- 
cus Inferior. 157. Of the Deltoid; of the Biceps; of the Triceps; of the Flexor Carpi 
Radialis ; of the Flexor Carpi Ulnaris ; of the Flexor Digitorum ; of the Extensor Digi- 
torum ; of the Extensor Carpi Radialis. 158. Describe the Glutei ; Sartorius ; Rectus 
Femoris ; Vastus Externus ; Vastus luternus ; Triceps Abductor Femoris ; Biceps Femoris ; 
Extensor Digitorum ; Peroneus Longus ; Gastrocnemius Externus ; Tendo- Achilles. 

§13. Histology of the Muscles. — 159. Into what is a Muscle separable? 160. By what 
is each muscle invested? What is Myolemma? Observation. 161. Name and describe 
the classes of muscles. 162. State the muscular law. Describe the different forms of 
muscles. 163. Describe the Tendons. 164. Where do you find the blood-vessels of the 
muscles? 165. What position do the Nerves occupy? What is said of the different 
classes of the nerves ? 

§ 14r. Chemistry of the Muscles. — 166. What is said of the chemical composition of the 
muscles? Muscle sugar is where fouud? l67. How does proper muscular substance 
differ from simple fibrous tissue? 168. Name some of the chemical changes attending 
muscular action. What is said of the " muscular current"? Observation. 

§15. Physiology of the Muscles. — 169. State the relative uses of bones and muscles. 
170. Name the uses of the muscles. 171. How is contractility excited? 172, To what 
are the Voluntary muscles subject? Of what aid the muscular sense? What is said of 
the exercise of this muscular sense? 173. What are the Involuntary muscles? What 
involuntary muscles are somewhat under the control of the Will ? Of what advantage 
this? 174. State the office of the Tendons. Do they possess contractility? In what 
respect do you see in them an exhibition of care and skill? 175. Where do we have 
examples of the different kinds of Levers? Define a Lever, and name its kinds. Explain 
each kind. 176. Where are the principles of the first kind illustrated? 177. Where 
those of the second? 178. Of the third? 179. Where does the pulley find illustration? 
180. What is said of the different layers ? 181. In what is mechanical skill shown ? 182. 
Speak of muscular force. 

§ 16. Hygiene of the Muscles. — 183. What advantage in possessing healthy muscles? 
Name the first essential. What does a pure state of the blood require ? 184. Why should 
the muscles not be compressed ? 185. How does exercise promote the health and growth 
of muscles? Illustration. 186. State the relation of relaxation to contraction. Illustra- 
tion. 187. Give a reason for a change of employment. Illustration. 188. How should the 
muscles be called into action? 189. How rested? 190. How should exercise be taken ? 
191. What kind of exercise? 192. To what should the amount of exercise be adapted? 
Observation. 193. State the proper time for exercise. 194. Mention the influence of 
the mind on the muscles. 195. What should be taken into consideration as to the 
amount of exercise? In what diseases are great care and discretion necessary as re- 
gards exercise ? What is said of the exercise of the muscles in chronic diseases of the 
digestive organs? What is important to secure beneficial results? Observation. 196. 
Why do the muscles require erect positions of the body? 197. What attention should 
be given to children and youth? What care in furnishing school-rooms? Observation. 



THE MUSCLES. 



95 



200. Why relaxation of muscles necessary in walking, jumping, etc.? 201. State and 
illustrate the influence of education. Observation. 

§ IT. Comparative Myology. — 202. What is said of the muscles of Mammals? Of their 
color? 203. For what is the muscular system of Birds remarkable? 204. Speak of the 
muscles of Reptiles. 205. Describe the muscles of Amphibians. 206. What modification 
of muscles in Fishes ? What color ? 207. What is said of the minuteness of the muscles 
in some aniuials? What of the application of hygienic laws? 



UNIFIC EEVIEW. 

[Compare 151, 152 with 159, 160, 162 and 200-205.] 
What is the structure of the muscles? State their relation to the bones. 
Compare the muscles of man with those of birds, reptiles, etc. 

[Compare 163 with 18.] 
Where do you find the white fibrous and muscular tissues closely related? 

[Compare 164 with 341.] 
How are the muscles nourished ? 

[Compare 165 with 394, 402, 403 and 420.] 
State the connection between the muscular and nervous systems. 

[Compare 166 with 43-46.] 
Of what are muscles composed? 

[Compare 184 with 329 and 381.] 
State the evil results of compression of the muscles. 

[Compare 185 with 330 and 441.] 
What is the influence of exercise on circulation and muscular power? 
What is the effect of a want of it on the nervous system ? 

[Compare 186 with 192, 193 and 2*61.] 
In taking exercise, what caution as to age, time, amount, etc. ? 



96 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 





Fig. 63. A Front View of the Muscles.— 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, Muscles of the head and 
face. 9, Muscles of the ueck. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, Muscles of upper 
extremities. 22, Muscles of the body. 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, Muscles of the 
lower extremities. 

Fig. 64. Superficial Muscles of a Hawk. — 1, Occipito-Frontalis. 2, Orbicularis 
Palpaebrarum. 3, Temporal. 4, Masseter. 5, Sterno-cleido-Mastoid. 6, Trapezius. 7, 
Latissimu? Dorsi. 8, Pectoralis. 9, Deltoid. 10, Biceps. 11, Triceps. 12, Gluteii. 13, 
Levator Caudae. 14, Rectus Femoris. 15, Gastrocnemius muscle. 



THE MUSCLES. 



97 



SYNTHETIC TOPICAL EEVIEW. 



Number and general arrangement, 

Modes of attacliment, 

Characteristic property, 

Head and Neck, of, 

Trunk, " anterior part of, 

" " posterior part of, 

Upper Extremities, 

Lower *' 

Analysis, 

Sheaths, 

Classes of. 

Consequent forms, 

Tendons, 

Blood-vessels, 

Nerves. 

Chemical composition, 

Chemical changes attending muscular action, 

Muscular current. 

Relative uses of bones and muscles, 

Important functions, 

Exciting agents of contractility, 

Voluntary, 

Relation of muscular sense, 

Importance of involuntary movements, 

Importance of such movements being some- 
times voluntary, 

Tendons, 

Lever, Pulley, 

Minute. 

Healthy condition. 

Freedom from compression. 

Inactivity, influence of, 

Exercise, " 

" conditions to be observed, 

Mental stimulus, effect of, 

Age and health, regard for, 

Position of the body, 

Proper tension, 

Education, influence of. 

Mammals, 

Birds, 

Reptiles, 

Amphibians, 

Fishes, 

Invertebrata. 



^2. 

Anatomy of. 



§13. 

Histology of. 



§14. 

Clicmistry of. 



§15. 

Fhysioloqy 
of. ' 



§16. 

Hygiene of. 



§17. 

Cmnparative 
Myology. 



Chap. V. 
Tlie Muscles. 



Give the Anatomy, the Histology, the Chemistry, the Physiology, 
the Hygiene, Human and Comparative, of the Muscles. 
9 E 



DIVISION III. 

THE NUTKITIVE APPAEATUS. 

206. In the mastication and deglutition of food, in its 
conversion into fluids, in its circulation in all parts of the 
system, in its assimilation into the various tissues and organs 
of the body, in its disassimilation and in the excretion of 
useless matter, — in a word, in the building up and repairing 
of the system, from the earliest period of embryo life to the 
last moment of earthly existence, certain organs are used, 
which together may be termed the Nutritive Apparatus, 
including the Digestive, the Absorptive, the Circulatory, the 
Assimilatory and the Respiratory organs. 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 



; 18. Anatomy of the Digestive Organs. — ATiatomy of the Mouth 
— The Teeth — The Salivary Glands — The Pharynx — The (Esophagus 
— The Stomach — The Intestines—The Liver—The Pancreas — The 



207. The Digestive Organs include the Mouth, Teeth, 
Salivary Glands, Palate, Pharynx, (Esophagus, Stomach, Intes- 
tines, Liver, Pancreas and Spleen. 

208. The Mouth is the space bounded by the lips in front, 
the soft palate behind, the hard palate above and the floor 
below, upon which rests the tongue. (Fig. 66.) 



THE DIGESTIVE OEGANS. 



99 




100 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



209. The Teeth are attached to the upper and the lower 
jaw-bone by means of bony sockets called alve'olar processes. 
The attachment is strengthened by the fibrous, fleshy struc- 
ture of the gums. Each tooth has two parts, the crown and 
the root. The crown is that part which protrudes from the 
jaw-bone and gum, and is covered by the enamel ; the root or 
fang is that part contained in the socket of the jaw, and the 
slightly-constricted portion clasped by the gums is the neck. 










Fig. 65 represents the Adult Teeth. — 1, 2, The cutting teeth (incisors). 3, Eye-tooth 
(cuspid). 4, 5, Small gnuders (bi-cuspids). 6, 7, 8, Grinders (niohirs). 9, 9, Neck of the 
tooth. 

210. The first set of teeth appearing in infancy is called 
temporary, or the milk teeth. They are twenty in number, 
ten in each jaw. Between six and fourteen years of age they 
are replaced by the second set, called permanent teeth, num- 
bering thirty-two, sixteen in each jaw. The four front teeth 
in each jaw are called Incisors (cutting teeth). The next 
tooth on each side the Cuspid (eye-tooth in the upper jaw and 
stomach tooth in the lower), the next two, Bi-cuspids (small 
grinders), the next two Molars (grinders), situated behind the 
other teeth. The last molars are the de^is sapientice or " wisdom 
teeth," smaller than their fellows, late in their development 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 



101 



and early in their decay. The incisors, cuspids and bi-cuspids 
have each but one root; the molars of the upper jaw have 
three roots, those of the lower jaw two roots. (Fig. 65.) 

211. A Gland consists of a tube or series of tubes of base- 
ment membrane with nucleated cells, invested externally with 
a fibrous layer, in which are distributed blood-vessels from 
which the glands elaborate their secretion. The Salivary 
Glands consist of three pairs, the Paroifid/^ the Submax'ilr 
lary\ and the Subling' ual.X 

Fig. 66. Fig. 67. 




Fig. 66. The Mouth axd Neck Laib Open. — 1, The teeth. 3, 4, Upper and lower jaws. 
5, The tongue. 7, Parotid glaud. 8, Sublingual gland. 9, Trachea (wind-pipe), 10, 11, 
(Esophagus (gullet). 12, Spinal column. 13, Spinal cord. 

Fig. 67. A Side View of Face. — 1, 2, Trachea. 3, (Esophagus. 7, Submaxillary. 8, 
Parotid gland. 9, Duct from the Parotid gland. 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, Muscles. 

The Pakotid Gland, the largest, is situated in front of the 
external ear, and behind the angle of the jaw. The Submax- 
illary Gland is situated within the lower jaw anterior to its 
angle. The Sublingual Gland is elongated and flattened, 
and situated beneath the mucous membrane of the floor of the 
mouth. Ducts from these glands open into the mouth. (Figs. 
66, 67.) 

Observation. — Tlie "mumps" is a disease of the parotid gland, and 
the swelling under the tongue called the "frog" a disease of the sublin- 
gual gland. 

* Gr., para, near, and ous, ear. f Lat., sub, under, maxilla, jaw-bone, 
% Lat., sub, under, and lingua, the tongue, 
9« 



102 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



212. The Pharynx or throat is the funnel-like cavity 
about four inches in length extending from the base of the 
skull to the top of the fifth cervical vertebra, where it becomes 
continuous with the oesophagus. 

213. The CEsoPHAGUS is a large membranous tube, ex- 
tending from the pharynx to the stomach. It lies behind 
the trachea, the heart and the lungs, and passes through the 
diaphragm. (Figs. 66, 67.) 

214. The Stomach is a some- 
what pear-shaped dilatation of 
the alimentary canal. When 
moderately filled, it measures 
twelve inches in length by four 
inches in diameter. It has two 
openings, one connected with 
the oesophagus, called the car'- 
diac orifice, the other connected 
with the upper portion of the 
Bmall intestine, called the py- 
loric orifice. (Fig. 68.) 

215. The Intestines are di- 
vided into the Small and the 
Large intestines. The small 
intestine is about twenty-five 
feet in length, and divided into 
three parts, the Diiode' num, the 
Jeju'num and the II' eum. Du- 
odenum signifies tivelve, and 
this part is so called because 
its length is about twelve fin- 
gers' breadth, or ten inches ; 
Jejunum signifies fasting, the 
food passing quickly through 
this portion, leaving it empty ; 
Ileum, twisted, is so named from its numerous coils or convo- 
lutions. (Fig. 68.) 

216. The large intestine, about five feet in length, is also 




Fig. 68. The Stomach and Intestines. 
— 1, Stomach. 2, Duodenum. 3, Small 
intestine. 4, Termination of the ileum. 
5, Ccecum. 6, Vermiform appendix. 7, 
Ascending colon. 8, Transverse colon. 
9, Descending colon. 10, Sigmoid flexure 
of the colon. 11, Rectum. 12, Spleen, 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 103 

divided into three parts, the Coecum, the Colon and the i?6C- 
tum. The Ccecum is so called from its forming a Mind pouch 
perforated at one end only; the Colon, because the excre- 
ments are arrested for a considerable time in its folds ; and 
the Kectum, from its straight course. 

Attached to the extremity of the coecum is the appendix 
vermiformis, a worm-shaped tube about four inches long and 
the size of a goose-quill. Its function is unknown. The 
colon is divided into three parts, the asce'nding, the transverse 
and the descending; the lower portion of the descending colon 
makes a double curvature called the sigmoid flexure. The 
rectum extends from the sigmoid flexure to the terminus of 
the intestinal canal, a distance of six or eight inches. (Fig. 
68.) 

217. The Liver is the largest glandular organ in the body, 
weighing about four pounds. It is situated in the right side 
below the diaphragm. It is convex above and slightly con- 
cave below. It has two principal lobes, the right lobe being 
four or five times larger than the left. On the under side of 
the liver is the gall-bladder, or reservoir for the bile, which 
opens by the common biliary duct into the duodenum. 

218. The Pancreas* is a long, flattened organ, weighing 
three or four ounces, about six inches in length, and placed 
transversely across the posterior wall of the abdomen behind 
the stomach. A duct from this organ opens into the duode- 
num. 

219. The Spleen (so called because the ancients supposed 
it to be the seat of melancholy) is an oblong, flattened organ, 
situated on the left side in contact with the diaphragm, stom- 
ach and pancreas. It is of a dark-bluish color, has no outlet, 
and its use is not well determined. (Fig. 68.) 

* Gr,, pan all, and kreas flesh. 



104 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

I 19. Histology of the Digestive Organs. — Lining Memhrane of 
the Alimentary Canal — Of the Mouth. Histological Composition of the 
Tongue— Of the Palates— Of the Teeth— Pharynx. The Three Coats 
of the CEsophagus, the Stomach and the Intestines. Composition of the 
Liver — Spleen — Pent oneum. 

220. The alimentary canal is lined through its entire length 
by the mucous memhrane, which, with its little recesses form- 
ing tubes or sacs called glands, is composed of three layers, 
the epiilielium or surface layer, the basement membrane, and 
the areolar-vascular layer or corium. The epithelium varies 
in different parts, both in the number of layers and in the 
form of its cells. 

Observation!. — Diphtheria is a diseased condition of the epithelial tis- 
sue of the mouth and throat. Irritation of the epithelium of the stomach 
induces vomiting. A morbid state of the epithelial tissue of the small 
intestines causes diarrhoea. An inflammatory action of the epithelial 
part of the large intestine (the rectum) attends dysentery* 

Observation 2. — In these diseases it is always safe to invite the blood to 
the skin by bathing, friction and extra coverings, to induce free and con- 
tinued perspiration. Large, warm poultices, made stimulating by ground 
mustard or cayenne pepper, should be applied to the lower part of the 
face and throat for diphtheria, and to the stomach and abdomen for the 
other before-mentioned diseases. Abstinence from all stimulating food 
or drinks, also from medicinal "cure-alls," to "turn sickness" or "to 
check diarrhcea or dysentery," should be maintained. If rest and pro- 
longed perspiration do not give relief, then send for a physician. 

221. The cavity of the Mouth, excepting the teeth, is 
everywhere covered with a highly vascular mucous mem- 
brane having a squamous epithelium, beneath which are con- 
cealed conical papillae, excepting upon the gums and upper 
surface of the tongue, where they become conspicuous as 
organs of taste. 

The Tongue is a muscular organ, composed of two sym- 
metrical halves, separated by a median fibrous membrane. 
Its muscles are named extrinsic and intrinsic. From the 
variety of the arrangement of the muscles, the tongue is 
capable of moving in all directions. (Fig. 66.) 

The Palate or roof of the mouth comprises two parts, the 
hard and the soft palate. The Sard palate is deeply vaulted 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 



105 




and lined with a smooth mucous membrane, excepting at the 
fore part, which is roughened by transverse ridges. The Soft 
palate is composed of a doubling of the mucous membrane, 
enclosing a muscular layer, together with several small glands. 
y ^ . ^ 222. The Teeth are appendages de- 

veloped in the mucous membrane of the 
mouth. The hard substance is composed 
of ivory or dentine, enamel and cement. 
The Dentine forming the greater part of 
the tooth consists of microscopic tubes 
called dental tuhuli. These tubuli are 
filled with minute processes of the pulp, 
affording nutrition, and perhaps giving 
sensibility to the dentine. 

The crown of the tooth is covered with 
Enamel, the hardest of all known animal 
textures, containing more earthy matter 
than the dentine, chiefly phosphate of 
lime. The Cement is a thin layer of true 
bone covering the fang, thinnest next 
to the enamel, and thickest along the 
grooves and near the point. (Fig. 69.) 
223. The Pharynx is a musculo- 
membranous bag, attached above to the 
base of the skull. Its walls consist 
chiefly of three pairs of constrictor 
muscles, supported by areolar tissue, 
and lined by mucous membrane which is continuous with 
that of the nasal cavities. Eustachian tubes, mouth, larynx 
and oesophagus, with all of which the pharynx communi- 
cates. The portion devoted to the passage of air has its epi- 
thelium columnar and ciliated, while that devoted exclusively 
to the passage of food and drinks has a squamous non-ciliated 
epithelium. Many mucous glands are found in the mucous 
membrane of the pharynx. (Figs. QQ, 67.) 

224. The walls of the OEsophagus are composed of three 
coats — muscular, areolar and mucous. The Muscular coat has 

E* 



Fig. 69. Vertical Si-ciioN 
OF A Molar Tooth, mode- 
rately magnified. — 1, En- 
amel, the lines of which 
indicate tlie arrangement 
of its columns. '1, Dentine, 
the lines indicating the 
course of its tubules. 3, 
Thin lamina of the dentine 
forming the wall of the 
pulp cavity, the dots indi 
eating the orifices of the 
dental tubuli. 4, Cement. 



106 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYCTENE. 



an external layer of longitudinal fibres and an internal layer 
of circular fibres. Tlie Areolar coat is soft and distensible. 
Tlie Mucous membrane lies in folds, so that no opening exists 
when the oesophagus is not in action. Man}^ mucous glands 
are found, especially at the ends. 

225. The Stomach is the dilated portion of the alimentary 
canal, into which the oesophagus opens from above by the 
cardiac orifice, and the small intestines from below by the 
pyloric orifice. It is a membranous bag, consisting of mucous 

Fig. 71. 





Fig. 70. Small Portion of the Mucous Membrane of the Stomach, with the Im- 
bedded Gastric Glands.— 1, The glands. 2, Orifices of the glands. 3, Epithelium of the 
mucous membrane. Moderately magnified. 

Fig. 71. Mammillae of the Mucous Membrane op the Stomach, moderately magni* 
fied, exhibiting the orifices of the gastric glands. 

membrane within, serous membrane without, with a muscular 
and areolar layer between. The muscular coat has three 
layers of fibres — longitudinal, cireular and oblique. 

The areolar coat is united to the muscular by loose areolar 
tissue, but the union is very firm between it and the mucous 
membrane which it supports. The mucous coat has numerous 
blood-vessels and lymphatics, also upright tubular glands, 
secreting the gastric juice. (Figs. 70, 71.) 

226. The Intestines have their coats and muscular fibres 
arranged like those of the stomach. The areolar coat, with 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 



107 



its closely-adherent mucous membrane, projects into the in- 
terior of the small intestines, forming valves called val'vulcB 
conniven'tes. These vary in size, some being two inches long, 
and one-third of an inch wide in the middle, tapering at both 
ends ; others are smaller, alternating with the layer. The 
intestinal mucous membrane is covered internally with thread- 
like processes of the membrane, which become erect when 
immersed in water, presenting a velvety appearance, hence 
called villi. (Figs. 71, 72.) 

227. The Liver has two coats — the external serous coat, 
formed from the doubling of the peritoneum upon it, and the 
internal areolar coat. Its proper substance is composed of a 
multitude of compressed polyhedral masses, not larger than a 
small pin's head, and named hepatic lobules. 

Fig. 72. 




Fig. 72. Portion of the Mucous Membrane from the Ileum, moderatelj'^ magnified 
exhibiting the villi on its free surface, and between them the orifices of the tubular 
glands.— 1, Portion of au agminated or clustered glaud. 2, A solitary gland. 3, Fibrous 
tissue. 



228. The Spleen has two coats — the outer, serous coat, 
being a reflection of the peritoneum ; the inner, fibro-elastic 
coat is composed of white fibrous tissue mingled with elastic 
tissue ; when torn, the lacerated surfaces present a deep red- 
dish-brown, pulpy appearance, resembling coagulated blood. 

229. The Peritoneum is a serous membrane which invests 
all the abdominal viscera, and is then reflected upon the walls 
of the abdomen. The large doubling of the peritoneum re- 
flected from the front of the vertebral column over the small 
intestine is called the mesentery. 



108 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

Fig. 73. 




Fig. 73. Inferior Surface of the Liver.— 1, Right lobe. 2, Left lobe. 3, Posterior 
margin. 4, Anterior margin. 5, Quadrate lobe. 6, Caudate lobe. 7, Isthmus, or caudate 
process, connecting the latter with the right lobe. 8, 9, Longitudinal fissure. 10, Trans- 
Terse fissure. 11, Portal vein. 12, Hepatic artery. 13, Common biliary duct, formed by 
the Tinion of the hepatic and cystic ducts. 14, Gall-bladder. 15, Ascending cava. 16, 
Hepatic veins. 17, Round ligament. 18, Anterior part of the suspensory ligament. 



^ SO. Chemistry of the Digestive Org Ai^s.—Secretions effecting 
Chemical Changes during Digestion. Chemical Character of these Se- 
cretions — Of Mucus — Of Saliva — Of the Gastric Juice — Of Bile — Of 
the Pancreatic Juice — Of the Intestinal Juice. Relation of Acids and 
Alkalies in the Digestive Fluids. 

230. The chemical processes concerned in digestion consist 
of peculiar reactions between the food and the various secre- 
tions of the alimentary canal. These fluids are — mucus and 
saliva, secretions of the mucous membrane and glands of the 
mouth ; gastric juice, a secretion of the stomach ; hile, a secre- 
tion of the liver ; pancreatic juice, a secretion of the pancreas ; 
mucus and intestinal juices, secretions of the mucous membrane 
and glands of the intestines. Each of these fluids effects a 
special change in the constituents of food, till they are finally 
converted from an insoluble to a soluble condition, in which 
they may be absorbed. 

231. Mucus is a colorless and very viscid fluid found upon 
the mucous membrane, and secreted from the plasma of the 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 



109 



blood by the epithelial cells of that membrane. It is some- 
times alkaline, sometimes acid, but perhaps, in its normal 
state, neutral. 

232. Saliva is a transparent, watery fluid. When first 
secreted, or during secretion, it is alkaline ; in fasting, the 
moisture of the mouth is nearly neutral or even acid, but 
it consists at that time almost entirely of mucus. The chemical 
action of saliva is — first, that of a solvent ; it dissolves saline 
substances, organic acids, alcohols and ethers, gum, sugar 
and the soluble albuminoid and gelatinoid bodies. Second, 
the saliva converts starch granules into dextrine, then into 
soluble dextrose, glucose or grape-sugar. A mixture of all 
the fluids of the mouth appears to form the most active com- 
bination for this purpose. 

233. The Gastric Juice is a colorless or pale-yellow, trans- 
parent, slightly viscid and strongly acid fluid. Pepsin is its 
characteristic constituent. Though the most powerful solvent 
known, the gastric juice seems to have no effect upon living 
animal substances ; hence the membranes of the stomach re- 
main intact as long as their vital power continues. Gastric 
juice changes cane-sugar into glucose — albuminous substances, 
as albumen, fibrin, casein, etc., into substances called peptones. 
Gelatinous substances are changed chemically by the gastric 
juice, and lose their property of gelatinizing when cold. 

234. Bile is a somewhat viscid, glutinous and bitter fluid, 
of a dark golden-brown coloi\ It is but slightly alkaline, and 
is sometimes neutral. In digestion it is an important agent, 
but its action does not depend upon an albuminoid, like 
saliva. Bile dissolves neither albuminoid substances nor fat, 
but probably emulsifies the latter. 

235. The Pancreatic Juice is somewhat viscid, trans- 
parent, colorless and inodorous. It is more strongly alkaline 
than saliva; as digestion goes on, it becomes more alkaline 
and less viscid. Its most peculiar constituent is pancreatin, 
an albuminoid substance ^yhose special composition is not yet 
determined. Its chief office seems to be to emulsify fatty 
matters, in which it probably acts with the bile. 

10 



110 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

236. The composition of Intestinal Juices is not well 
known. They probably differ from common mucus, and 
have special properties. They are colorless, viscid, and con- 
tain from two to five per cent, of solid matter. They appear to 
be alkaline in the ileum, or lower part of the small intestines, 
acid in the coecum, or beginning of the large intestines, and 
alkaline through the remainder. 

237. The changes which take place in the three staminal 
principles of food — sacGharine, albuminoid and oleaginous sub- 
stances — from their entrance into the mouth till ready for 
absorption, sum up as follows : The conversion of starch com- 
mences with the saliva ; that of albuminoids and cane-sugr.r 
Avith the gastric juice; the emulsifying of fats with the bile 
and pancreatic juice. These processes go on independently 
of each other, the salivary action being unaffected by the 
gastric, but both functions are somewhat aided by the pan- 
creatic juice, the intestinal juice coming in as a general 
auxiliary agent, to complete and harmonize the several 
operations commenced at different points in the alimentary 
canal. 

238. It will be noticed in the digestive fluids that there are 
successive alternations of alkali and acid, the saliva being 
alkaline ; the gastric juice, acid ; the pancreatic juice, bile 
and juice of the ileum or third part of the small intestine, 
more or less alkaline ; that of the coecum of the large intes- 
tine, acid ; that of the remaining portion, alkaline— alterna- 
tions giving neutralizations of great importance in the chem- 
istry of digestion. 

§ 21. Physiology of the Digestive Orgaks. — The Assimilation of 
Food. Process by which Food is transformed into Chyle. Destination 
of the Chyle. 

239. Food is necessary to the preservation and growth of 
the body, but it must first be animalized or assimilated ; that 
is, converted into matter having the same characteristics as 
those animal substances into which it is at length to be in- 
corporated. We may include under the term Primary As- 



THE DIGESTIVE OEGANS. Ill 

similation those animalizing changes necessary to the conver- 
sion of food into chyle and blood ; under Secondary Assimila- 
tion, those necessary to the conversion of blood into integral 
parts of solid tissue. The ^irs^ series of changes is included in 
the process, named Digestion, by which food is transformed 
from its crude state into Chyle. 

240. The alimentary canal in which these digestive changes 
take place is like a long manufacturing establishment with 
many apartments, the first room being the mouth or masti- 
cating room, where some of the workmen cut the food ; some 
grind it ; some moisten it and supply the needed chemicals 
for making one of the animalizing changes. Mastication 
being completed, at the word of command the obedient mus- 
cles, with the greatest promptness and efficiency, convey the 
food onward to that wonderful laboratory, the stomach. The 
muscles of the soft palate raise the curtain from the base of 
the tongue and incline it backward, closing the opening into 
the nostrils ; those of the small open lid of the trachea, the 
epiglottis, close the lid tightly that the food may pass safely 
over, while the muscles of the tongue, cheeks and floor of the 
mouth force the food back into the pharynx and the oesopha- 
gus, the circular muscles of which, by alternate relaxation 
and contraction, urge it into the stomach. Here the food is 
subjected to a remarkable chemical agent, the Gastric Juice, 
which changes it from a crude state into a soft, homogeneous 
pulp called Chjme. (Figs. 66, 67, 68, 73.) 

241. Recent investigations show that this juice is less of a 
"universal solvent" than was formerly supposed — that its 
chemical power is limited to azotized substances, changing 
albuminoids into albuminose and gelatinoids into gelatinose, 
the conditions best adapted to assimilation. The change in 
starch, which continues in the stomach, is effected by the 
presence of the saliva, which commenced its work in the 
mouth. Fatty matters are only reduced to a fine state of 
division and held in suspension by the pulpy chyme. 

During these processes the mass is undergoing a churning 
or rotary motion by the joint manipulations of the longitudi- 



112 ANATOMY, PPIYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

nal, circular and oblique muscles, thus bringing part after 
part into the immediate presence of the Gastric Juice. While 
digestion is thus going on the openings of the stomach are 
well guarded. A return of any part of the- mass into the 
oesophagus is prevented by the sphincter muscles near the 
cardiac orifice, and the passage to the intestine is closed by 
the sphincter muscles of the pyloric orifice and a valve called 
the pylorus or " gate-keeper," which, true to its name, stands 
a faithful sentinel till proper chyme presents itself, showing 
evidence of having completed the prescribed curriculum. 
This sentinel-commission seems to last only during the pro- 
cess of digestion, as afterward many substances previously 
detained are allowed free egress. (Fig. 6S.) 

242. After passing the pyloric orifice the chyme is treated 
by other chemical agents, the bile, the pancreatic and intes- 
tinal juices continuing the chemical process commenced in 
other parts of the alimentary canal. The fats are reduced to 
an exceedingly fine state of emulsion. The whole pulp is 
subjected to the constant wave-like or peristaltic muscular 
action of the intestines which forces their contents to their 
respective destinations. The nutritive portion or chyle is 
taken up by the absorbent vessels and conveyed to the blood, 
while the innutritions portion is excreted from the system. 

243. The absorbing surface of the intestines is enormously 
increased by the projecting forms and great abundance of the 
villi; they hang out into the nutritious, semi-fluid mass con- 
tained in the cavity of the intestines as the roots of fi tree 
penetrate the soil, imbibing the liquid portions of food with 
wonderful rapidity. (Figs. 17, 72.) 

§ 2S. Hygiene of the Digestive Organs. — Suggestions relative to 
the Preservation of the Teeth — To their Removal. Conditions affecting 
the Quantity of Food demanded by the System — The Quality of Food. 
Directions relating to the Manner of taking Food. Conditions of the 
System requisite for the proper Digestion of Food. 

244. For the Preservation of the Teeth the first requisite is 
to keep them clean. After meals they should be cleansed to 
prevent the collection of tartar and to remove any remaining 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 113 

particles of food. Night and morning the mouth should be 
cleansed with pure tepid water, after Vv^hich the teeth should 
be thoroughly brushed on both surfaces. Occasionally, re- 
fined soap may be used if followed by thorough rinsing of 
the mouth. Tobacco contains a "grit" which injures the 
enamel. It also discolors the teeth, debilitates the vessels of 
the gums, taints the breath and renders the appearance of 
the mouth forbidding. 

245. The Removal of the Teeth. The temporary teeth should 
be removed at once when loose, and often before, when the 
permanent teeth appear. This is essential to the regularity 
and beauty of the second set. 

Irregular or crowded permanent teeth generally require the 
removal of one or more. By pressure upon each other the 
enamel is injured and the appearance rendered unsightly. 

Observation. — Toothache does not always indicate the necessity of ex- 
traction, as the nerve or investing membrane may be diseased and the 
tooth sound. When the removal of a tooth is necessary, apply to some 
skillful operator; something more is needed than strong muscles and a 
pair of forceps. Skill is as requisite in the proper extraction of a tooth 
as in the amputation of a limb. 

246. The health of the Digestive Organs in general re- 
quires the observance of certain conditions relative to their 
natural stimulus. Food. These will be considered under the 
following heads: 1. The Quantity of Food. 2. The Quality 
of Food. 3. The Manner of taking Food. 4. The Proper 
Conditions of the System for receiving Food. 

247. The Quantity of Food necessary to the system va- 
ries, being affected by age, occupation, temperament, habits, 
temperature, amount of clothing, health and mental state. 

248. The supply must equal the waste of the system. In every 
department of nature waste attends action. The greater the 
amount of exercise, the more rapidly will the particles be 
worn out and removed and their places need supplying with 
new atoms. 

During the period of growth the supply must exceed the waste, 
for the building of new tissues. This accounts for the keen 
10 » 



114 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

appetite and vigorous digestion in childhood. The same is 
true when persons have become emaciated from famine or 
disease. 

249. When exercise is lessened, the quantity of food should be 
proportionally diminished, otherwise the tone of the digestive 
organs will be impaired and the health of the system en- 
feebled. This is especially applicable to students who have 
been accustomed to laborious employments. 

250. More food is required in winter than in summer ; hence, 
by diminishing the amount of food as the warm season ap- 
proaches, the tone of the stomach and vigor of the system 
will be better maintained, thus lessening the liability to 
"summer complaint." 

251. The amount of food should he adapted to the present 
condition of the digestive organs. Imperfectly digested food 
irritates the mucous membrane of the intestines and debili- 
tates the system instead of invigorating it. In sickness, the 
attending physician is the person to decide respecting the 
proper amount, as diseased tissues suffer from undue action. 
In health, the natural appetite is generally a safe guide as to 
plain, nutritious food; but condiments, spices, etc., excite a 
morbid appetite, whose cravings it is unsafe to gratify. 

252. The Quality of Food should he hoth nutritive and 
digestihle. Substances are nutritious in proportion to their 
capacity to yield the constituents of chyle. Substances are 
digestihle in proportion to the facility with which they are 
acted upon by the digestive fluids. Articles highly nutri- 
tive in themselves, but difficult of digestion, often yield less 
nourishment than those poorer in nutritive quality but easy 
of digestion. If we confine our diet to easily digested articles, 
the digestive organs will be weakened from want of proper 
exercise ; if too highly concentrated diet, they will be injured 
by over-work ; hence the necessity of choosing, in this respect, 
the "happy medium." Variety in food is as essential in the 
domestic animals as in man. 

253. Proper aliment must contain the three staminal prin- 
ciples of food. These are albuminous, oleaginous and saccha- 



THE DIGESTIVE OEGAXS. 115 

rine substances ; the first contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen 
and nitrogen ; the last two are destitute of nitrogen. Various 
experiments have shown that if we feed upon any one of 
these groups to the exclusion of the other two, or upon any 
two to the exclusion of the third, the health will be impaired. 
Milk contains all the food principles, the albuminous being 
furnished by its casein ; the oily, by the butter ; and the 
saccharine, by the sugar of milk. Beef is rich in fat and 
albumen, and also contains inosit or muscle-sugar. Most of 
the cereals contain gluten (an albuminoid), starch, sugar and 
oil. Wheat, however, has the first three constituents without 
the oil. It is most nutritious in the form of " Graham flour ;" 
by rejecting the bran, most of the gluten is lost. Eggs are 
very rich in albumen, and the yolk also contains oil. Beans, 
peas, etc., afiford starch and much legumine (an albuminoid). 
Potatoes abound in starch. Sago, tapioca, rice, arrow-root, 
etc., are constituted almost wholly of starch. These articles 
or their substitutes, properly combined, will yield the neces- 
sary elements to the system. 

254. Food should be properly cooked. However nutritious 
an article of food may be, if not well cooked it is not only 
unsavory to the palate, but hurtful to the digestive organs. 
The simplest methods of preparation by cooking are the best. 
Meat should be broiled, roasted or made into soup. 

The cooking of vegetables should be thorough and com- 
plete. The proper combination and cooking of a few articles 
of food (as flour, milk, eggs and butter) require skill, which 
in reality assumes the importance of no inferior art. 

255. The Quality of Food should be adapted to the season and 
climate. Highly stimulating food may be used almost with 
impui^ty during the cold season of a cold climate, but in the 
w^arm season and in a warm climate it is very injurious. 
Animal food, being more stimulating than vegetable, is there- 
fore well adapted to winter, and vegetable to spring and 
summer. Where the digestive organs are weakened or dis- 
eased, it is very important that a nutritious vegetable diet be 
adopted as the warm season approaches. 



116 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

256. Vegetable diet is most suitable for children. The organs 
of a child are more sensitive and excitable than those of an 
adult; hence, stimulants of every kind should be strictly 
avoided, and the food mainly of a vegetable character. In 
this " fast age," this is a suggestion of vast importance. 
Parents mourn over many evil eiFects of unrestrained passion 
and moral deterioration in the rising generation, while in 
truth these are too often buf the legitimate harvest of the 
seed they have themselves sown in the form of stimulating 
food and drinks. The old spelling-book assertion that 
"bread and milk is the best food for children" is as true 
now as it was in the days of our fathers. 

257. The Manner of taking Food exercises a control- 
ling influence upon the health of the digestive organs. It is 
essential that the food be projyerly masticated, to secure the 
fine division necessary to the proper action of the gastric 
juice and other fluids, and especially to mix the food with 
the requisite amount of saliva. Kapid eating should be 
avoided, not only as a violation of good table manners, but 
as a violation of the laws of our physical nature, whose 
penalty, in the form of dyspepsia with its numerous train of 
evils, will sooner or later be visited upon the transgressor. 

258. Drink should not be taken with the food. Nature sup- 
plies the appropriate moisture, and if tea, coflee or any other 
fluid be used as a substitute, indigestion will follow from the 
absence of the necessary amount of saliva. Again, drinks 
taken into the stomach must be absorbed before the digestion 
of other articles is commenced. Thirst between the meals 
does not always arise from a demand of the system for fluids, 
but may be induced by fever or local disease of the parts 
connected with the throat. This may often be relieved by 
chewing a cracker or some other dry substance, thus exciting 
the salivary glands. This is a safe resort when thirst accom- 
panies a heated condition of the system arising from over- 
exercise, while the practice of taking cold fluids is dangerous 
and should never be indulged. 

259. Regard should be yaid to the temperature of food and 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 117 

drink. Hot food or drink for a short time unduly stimu- 
lates the vessels of the mucous membrane of the gums, mouth 
and stomach ; then reaction follows, bringing loss of tone and 
debility of these parts. This practice is a fruitful cause of 
spongy gums, decayed teeth, sore mouth and indigestion. 
On the other hand, if food or drink be taken too cold, an 
undue amount of heat is abstracted from the stomach ; this 
arrests the digestive process, and thus deranges the system. 

260. Food should he taken at regular and suitable periods. 
The interval between the meals should be regulated by the 
character of the food, and the age, health, exercise and habits 
of the individual. In the young, the active and the vigorous, 
food is more rapidly digested than in the aged, the indolent 
and the feeble; consequently, it should be taken more fre- 
quently by the former class than by the latter. 

261. The Conditions of the System for receiving 
Food are important in digestion. 

Food should not he taken immediately hefore or after severe 
exercise of hody or mind. The functional exercise of any 
organ abstracts fluids, sanguineous and nervous, from other 
parts of the body, thus weakening those parts for the time. 
Severe exercise of the muscle concentrates the forces in the 
muscle; severe exercise of the brain concentrates the forces 
of the brain ; the same is true of the vocal and other organs. 
After severe exercise, from thirty to forty minutes should be 
allowed before eating, for restoring equilibrium to the system. 
The student, farmer or mechanic who hurries from his toil to 
his dinner to "save time" will, in the end, lose more time 
than he saves.. After eating, the digestive organs need, for a 
time, the chief use of the vital forces, and if they are habit- 
ually expended elsewhere,, as in study or labor, digestion will 
be arrested, the chyle cheated of its proper elements, and 
headache, dullness and general derangement will follow. 

Observation. — When horses and oxen have been worked hard, water 
or food should not be given as soon as they are stabled. The noon meal 
of the worked domestic animal should be light. Neither water nor food 
should be given the hard-driven horse until he is rested. 



118 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

262. Persons should abstain from eating at least three hours 
before retiring for sleep. It is no unusual occurrence for those 
persons who have eaten heartily immediately before retiring 
to have unpleasant dreams, or to be aroused from their un- 
quiet slumber by colic pains. In such instances, the brain 
becomes partially dormant, not imparting to the digestive 
organs the requisite amount of nervous influence ; this being 
deficient, the unchanged food remains in the stomach, causing 
irritation of this organ. 

Observation. — A healthy farmer who was in the habit of eating a 
quarter of a raince pie just before retiring became annoyed with un- 
pleasant dreams, and among the images of his fancy he saw that of his 
deceased father. Becoming alarmed, he consulted a physician, who, 
after a calm hearing, advised the patient to eat half a mince pie, 
assuring him that then he would see his grandfather. 

263. The mental state exerts an influence upon the digestive 
process. This is clearly exhibited when an individual re- 
ceives sad intelligence. Let him be sitting at a plentiful 
board with a keen appetite, and the unexpected news destroys 
it, because the excited brain withholds the stimulus ; hence 
all unpleasant themes, labored discussions or matters of busi- 
ness should be banished from the table. Light conversa- 
tion, enlivening wit and cheerful humor wonderfully promote 
digestion. 

Indigestion arising from nervous prostration should be treated 
with great care. The food should be simple, nutritious, 
properly cooked, moderate in quantity and taken at regular 
periods. Large quantities of stimulating food, frequently 
taken, serve to increase the nervous prostration. Exercise 
in the open air and a cheerful state of mind are very bene- 
ficial in restoring the natural, healthy action of the brain, 
and thus aiding the digestive powers. 

264. After long abstinence unstimidating food should be 
taken, and in small quantities. As in case of sickness, when 
the appetite begins to return, the nurse must use much dis- 
cretion, and the patient, often, self-denial. The popular 
adage that "food never does harm when there is a desire for 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 119 

it" is untrue. Too frequently, when a patient satisfies his 
cravings, it is to induce relapse into the former disease, and 
at the risk of life. The digestive organs are weak, and must 
be gradually brought into action. It is often better to give 
the food in a solid rather than liquid form, so that the sali- 
vary and mucous glands may be stimulated to action. 

265. The condition of the shin exercises an important in- 
fluence upon digestion. Let free perspiration be checked, 
either from uncleanliness, chills or any other cause, and the 
functional action of the stomach is diminished. This is one 
of the fruitful causes of "liver and stomach complaints" 
among the filthy and half-clad inhabitants of our cities and 
villages. Attention to bathing and clothing would prevent 
many " season complaints," especially among children. 

Observation. — The useful cow should be protected from chilling rains 
and frosts. It is poor economy to have the skin of any domestic ani- 
mal chilled. 

266. Pure air is necessary to give a keen appetite and vigorous 
digestion. The digestive organs must have a plentiful supply 
of pure blood, and to have pure blood we should breathe 
pure air. Poor ventilation is a frequent cause of indigestion. 
Persons who sleep in ill- ventilated rooms have little or no 
appetite in the morning. A manufacturer stated before a 
committee of the British Parliament that he had removed an 
arrangement for ventilating his mill, as he noticed that his 
men ate much more after his mill was ventilated than before, 
and he could not afford to have them breathe the pure air. 
Compression of the vital organs prevents the introduction of 
a sufiicient supply of pure air, and is one of the causes of 
dyspepsia, now so prevalent among ladies. 

General Observations. — All aliment is separated into nutriment and 
residuum. The latter should be regularly expelted from the system, 
otherwise headache, dizziness and general uneasiness will ensue, and 
if allowed to continue, the foundation will be laid for a long period of 
suffering and disease. For the preservation of health, there should be 
in most persons a daily evacuation of residual matter. Evening is the 
best time ; especially is this true when persons are afflicted with piles. 



120 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



Constipation may, in many cases, be relieved by friction over the ab- 
dominal organs, and by making an effort to evacuate the residuum at 
some stated period each day. 

Recapitulation. — Digestion is most perfect when the action of the 
cutaneous vessels is energetic; the brain moderately stimulated; the 
blood well purified ; the muscular system duly exercised ; the food 
properly cooked and masticated, taken at regular periods, and adapted 
in quality and quantity to the present condition of the individual. 

^ 23. Comparative Splanchnology. — Nutritive Apparatus of Verte- 
brates. Compare the Mouths and Teeth of Vertebrates — The Stomach 
and Intestines of Vertebrates — Nutritive Apparatus of Mollusca and 
Annulosa — Of Radiata — Of Protozoa. 

267. In the Nutritive Apparatus of all vertebrates, as 
in the Motory, a general plan of parts obtains, subject to the 
variations required to preserve the harmony of relation be- 
tween the organization and the use to which it is to be ap- 
plied. 

Fig. 74. Fig. 75. 



.•*^^ 



fm- 






Tig. 74 represents the Teeth of Carniv ra or Flesh-eating Animals. 
Fig. 75 represents the Teeth or Insectivora or Insect-eating Animals. 

268. In no part do we find a greater variety or a nicer 
accommodation to particular wants than in the Mouths and 
Teeth of different animals. In Mammals the projecting 
jaws, the wide mouth, the strong, pointed, sharp, enameled 
edges of the teeth enable carnivorous or flesh-eating animals 
to seize and hold their prey, and the hinge-like movement of 
the jaw to divide it like a pair of scissors, as seen in the Cat 
and the Lion. (Fig. 74.) The full lips, the rough tongue, 
the furrowed, cartilaginous palate, the broad, rough surface 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 



121 



of the teeth, the central plates of enamel and the lateral 
movement of the jaw qualify the herbivorous or grain-eating 
animals for grazing and for grinding their food, as grain is 
crushed between the upper and nether millstone, as in the 
Sheep and Horse. The elongated, tapering muzzle, the cone- 
pointed, enameled molars locking into the enameled depres- 
sions of the opposite jaw, enable the insectivorous animals to 
burrow in the earth for the insects and worms upon which 
they feed, and also to crush them, as in the Mole and Hedge- 
hog. (Fig. 75.) , The two chisel-shaped incisors, enameled 
only in front, allowing more rapid wear of the posterior than 
the anterior part, keeping them always sharp ; the bag of 
pulp at the base of these teeth, providing for growth equal to 

Fig. 76. 




Fig. 76. Lower Jaw of a Squirkei.— 1, The enamel of the gnawing tooth. 2, The 
ivory. 3, The lateral furrows of the molar teeth. 



the wear at the top ; the backward and forward movement 
of the jaws and the great size and strength of the lower jaw, 
adapt the rodentia or gnaw^ers to their mode of life, as in the 
Rat and the Squirrel. (Fig. 76.) 

269. In Birds the mouth receives a new character both in 
substance and in form. Instead of fleshy lips and teeth of 
enameled bone we have the hard and horny investment of 
the jaws, known as the bill, destitute of true teeth. This 
organ varies in size and form according to the food of the 
species, which may be grains, insects, fishes or flesh. 

270. In all carnivorous Reptiles the prey is swallow^ed whole ; 
hence their jaws and throats are made capable of great di-la- 

11 F 



122 



AI^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, 



tation. Their teeth are used only for seizing and retaining 
their prey, but not in any way for dividing it. 

271. Some species of Amphibians, as Frogs, have only the 
upper jaw armed with teeth. The structure of the tongue of 
the Toad is like that of the Frog (attached to the floor of the 
mouth), but the jaws are not furnished with teeth. 

272. The teeth of Fishes vary much in form in different 
species, being sometimes line and thickly set ; in others they 
are strong hooks or sharp-cutting plates. 

27S. The Stomach and Intestines of vertebrates vary in 
size, form and relative length. They are simpler, harder 




Fig. 77. Stomach of the Sheep.— 1, The oesophagus. 2, The rumen. 3, The reticn- 
Intn. 4, The omasum. 5, The abomasum or rennet. 6, The intestine. 

Fig. 78. Stomach of aw Ox.— 1, Tlie oesophagus. 2, The rumen (pannch). 3, The ret- 
iculum (honeycomb). 4, The omasum (many-plies). 5, The abomasum (rennet). -6, The 
intestine. 



and shorter in carnivorous than in herbivorous or granivorous 
animals ; while the Ox has intestines about twenty times the 
length of his body, those of the Lion are but three or four 
times its own length. 

274. Ruminants, as the Sheep and Ox, have a stomach with 
four cavities. The first stomach, called the Ru'men or 
'^Paunch;" the second, the Betie'ulum or '' Honey co7)ih;" the 
third, the Oma'mm or "Many-Plies;'' the fourth, ih^Al/omor 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 



123 



sum or "Bennet;'' the latter, taken from the young calf, is 
used in cheese-making. (Figs. 77, 78.) 





Fig. 79. The Alimentary Canal of a Fowl.— 1, The oesophagus. 2, Ingluvies (crop). 
3, Proven ti cuius (secreting stomach). 4, Triturating stomach (gizzard). 5, Intestine. 
6, Two caeca. 

Fig. 80. The Alimentary Canal of the Flying Lizard. — 1, The oesophagus. 2, The 
Stomach. 3, 3, Small intestine. 4, Large intestine. 



The food when first swallowed is received into the Rumen, 
where it accumulates while the animal is feeding. Here it is 



124 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



moistened by the fluids secreted by the walls of this cavity. 
It then passes into the Reticulum, where it receives addi- 
tional secretions, and is made into little pellets or " cuds," 
which, when the animal is at rest, are returned to the mouth 
to be re-chewed and mixed with the saliva. This pulp passes 
directly into the third cavity to be prepared for the fourth, 
where digestion is finally completed. It is then received by 
the intestinal canal. 

275. In Birds there are usu- 
ally three cavities or stomachs ; 
the first is a dilatation of the 
oesophagus, called the Crop or 
'' Iiigluvies," where the food is 
macerated and softened ; the 
second is the true stomach, 
named ^' Proventic'ulus,'' where 
the mucous membrane is pro- 
vided with mucous follicles, 
secreting an acid which acts 
still farther upon the food ; and 
the third is the Gizzard or TrW- 
urating cavity. The latter, in 
granivorous birds, has immense 
strength, being composed of 
muscuLar fibres running in dif- 
ferent directions and lined with 
a horny membrane. Gravel 
and angular stones are in- 
stinctively swallowed to assist in the grinding process. In 
flesh-eating birds the gizzard is thin and membranous. The 
commencement of the large intestine is furnished in most 
birds with two blind tubes or cseca ; their exact function is 
still questionable. (Fig. 79.) 

276. In Reptiles the alimentary canal differs much from 
that of mammals or birds. As a general rale, it is shorter 
in proportion to the trunk than in warm-blooded vertebrates. 
The transition from the oesophagus to the stomach is by a 




Fig. 81. The Alimentary Canal of 
•THE Sword-fish.— 1, Liver. 2, 3. Csecus 
or pouches connecting with small intes- 
tine. 4, 5, Small intestine, coiled. 6, 
Large intestine. 7, Biliary duct. 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 125 

pouch-like enlargement; although the prey of many reptiles 
passes into the stomach whole, nothing is permitted to pass out 
into the intestines but chyme and other fluids. The small in- 
testines usually have a few coils ; the large intestines in most 
reptiles are short, simple and straight. The stomach of the 
Frog is pear-shaped, placed in the left side of the abdomen. 
(Fig. 80.) 

277. In Fishes, the alimentary canal is more diversified in 
length, size and form than in reptiles. There are two pre- 
dominant formB of the stomach in fishes — one like a bent 
tube (siphonal), and the other a blind tube (csecal) (Figs. 81, 
82). In some species of fish, the small intestines extend in 
a line from the stomach to their termination ; in others there 




^^ 

Fig. 82. The Alimentakt Canal op the Herring. — 1, (Esophagus. 2, Stomach. 
3, 3, 3, 3, Small intestine. 4, Cseca. 5, Air-bladder. 7, Pneumatic duct. 

are found from two to eight coils. The large intestines are 
short and straight, and the termination of the rectum opens 
into a cavity called the Cloaca. The liver is usually large, 
with numerous appendages. In the cod it is soft and satu- 
rated with oil, which is expressed for medicinal purposes. 

278. The object of digestion in Invertebrates as well as 
Vertebrates is to separate the nutrient part of the aliment 
from the non-nutrient portion or residuum, so that the. former 
may be converted into liquids adapted to mingle with the 
blood. 

279. The Annulosa and Mollusca are furnished with a 
distinct alimentary canal that does not open into the body- 
cavity. In most cases the digestive canal communicates with 

11* 



126 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



the outer world by two openings — a mouth and an excretory 
aperture. 

280. In the Radiata, the digestive cavity is a pouch with 
a single opening, into which the food is passed and from 
which the residuum is ejected, as in the Hydra. (1-Fig. 84.) 

Fig. 84. 





Fig. 83. Digestive Apparatus op a Beetle.— 1, Gullet. 2, Crop. 3, Gizzard. 4, 
Chylific stomach. 5, Malphigiau tubes or caeca. 6, Intestines, with cloaca. 8, Renal 
vessel. 

Fig. 84 represents the Digestive Apparatus of the Hydra or Fresh-water Polyp. 

281. In the Protozoa there is no digestive apparatus, or 
only a rudimentary one. The process of nutrition is carried 
on in the simplest possible manner, and with the simplest 
possible apparatus. The only distinct structure which is at 
all concerned in nutrition is a contractile cavity which opens 
and closes at definite intervals. 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 127 



ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 

206. In what processes are the organs of the Nutritive Apparatus usedt Name the 
organs. 

Chaffer VI. — The Digestive Organs. 

§ 18. Anatomy of the Digestive Organs. — 207. What are included iu the Digestive Or- 
gans? 208. Describe the Mouth. 209. What is said of the Teeth? Give the parts of each 
tooth. 210. What are the temporary teeth ? The permanent ? Name and describe the 
different forms of the teeth. 211. Define a Gland. Of how many pairs do the Salivary 
Glands consist? Name and describe each pair. Observation- 212. Describe the Pharynx. 
213. What is the CEsophagus? 214. What is said of the Stomach? 215. Mention the 
divisions of the Intestines. Describe the small intestine. 216. State the length and 
parts of the large intestine. Describe each part, 217. Describe the Liver, How many 
lobes ? What is on the uuder side? 218. What is said of the Pancreas? 219, What is 
the Spleen? 

I 19. ITid(A.ogy of the Digestive Organs. — 220. By what is the alimentary camil lined? 
Observations, 221. Describe the lining membrane of the mouth- Describe the tongue. 
Name its muscles. Distinguish between hard and soft palate. 222. What is the rela- 
tion of the teeth to the mucous membrane of the mouth ? Give the composition of the 
hard substance. Describe each part. 223. Describe the walls of the Pharynx. 224. 
Name and describe the coats of the Oesophagus. 225. Describe the Stomach and its coats, 
226. What is said of the coats and muscular fibres of the intestines? What are the Val- 
vulsfi Conniventes ? Describe the Villi. 227. How many coats has the Liver? 2^8, De- 
scribe the coats of the Spleen. 229. What is the Peritoneum? 

§ 30. Chemistry of the Digestive Organs. — 230. What secretions effect chemical changes 
during digestion ? 231. What is Mucus? 232, Describe Saliva, What is said of it when 
first secreted ? State its chemical effect. 233. What are the properties of Gastric Juice? 
Name its characteristic constituent. What of its solvent power? What changes does it 
effect? 234. Describe Bile. What changes caused by it? 235. What is said of the Pan- 
creatic Juice? Its office? 236. Speak of the Intestinal Juices. 237. State the sum- 
ming up of the changes in thiee staminal principles of food. 238, What is the relation 
of acid and alkali in the digestive fluids? 

g 81. Physiology of the Digestive Organs. — 239, What change in food is necessary? 
What is Primary Assimilation? What Secondary? What is Digestion? 240. To what 
is the alimentary canal likened? 241. What do recent investigations show respecting 
the Gastric Juice? Speak of the changes of food in the stomach. Can the food return 
to the oesophagus? Why not? When does the food leave the stoaiach? What is there 
peculiar about the Pylorus? 242. What changes occur iu the alimentary canal? 243. 
How is the absorbing surface of the intestines increased? What becomes of the nutri- 
tive portion of the food ? 

§ 33. Hygiene of the Digestive Organs. — 244. Name the first requisite for the preservation 
of the Teeth. What objection to the use of tobacco? 245. When should the temporary 
teeth be removed ? What do the irregular permanent teeth generally require ? Observa- 
tion. 246. What is required for the health of the Digestive Organs ? 247. What is said of 
the quantity of food ? 248. What must the supply equal ? When must supply exceed 
waste ? 249. When should the quantity of food be diminished ? 250. Is more or less food 
required in winter than in summer? 251. To what should the amount be adapted? 252. 
What should be the quality of food ? Distinguish between nutritious and digestible sub- 
stances. 253. What must proper aliment contain? 254. How should food be cooked? 
What are the best methods of preparation ? 255. To what should the quality be adapted? 
256. What is said of vegetable diet? 257. What is said of the manner of taking food? 
Why should food be properly masticated ? 258. Why not take drink with food ? What 



128 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

is said of thiret between meals? 259. Why should regard be bad to the temperature of 
food and drink? 260. How and when should food be taken? 261. State the reason for 
not taking food just before or after exercise. Observation. .262. Why is it not best to 
eat immediately before retiring to sleep? Observation. 263. What influence does the 
state of the mind exert upon the digestive organs? How should indigestion arising 
from nervous prostration be treated? 264. After long abstinence, what kind of food 
should be taken ? 265. What influence does the condition of the skin exert? Obser- 
vation. 266. Why is pure air necessary ? General Observation. Recapitulation. 

§ /83. Comparative Splanchnology. — 267. What is said of the Nutritive Apparatus of 
Vertebrates ? 268. Compare the mouth and teeth of the Vertebrates. 269. Of Birds. 270. 
Of Reptiles. 271. Of Amphibians. 272. Of Fishes. 273. Speak of the stomach and intes- 
tines of Vertebrates. 274. Describe the stomach and give the process of digestion in 
Ruminants. 275. Name and describe the stomachs of Birds. 276. Speak of the digestive 
organs of Reptiles. 277. What is said of the stomach and alimentary canal in Fishes? 
278. What is the object of digestion in Invertebrates? 279. Speak of the digestive or- 
gans in the Annulosa and Mollusca. 280. In the Radiata. 281. In the Protozoa. 



UNIFIC EEVIEW. 

[Compare 208-210 with 222 and 267-272.] 
Compare the mouth and teeth of man with those of the lower animals. 

[Compare 214-216 with 223-226 and 273-281.] 
Contrast the alimentary canal of man with that of the different sub-king- 
doms and classes. 

[Compare 217 and 227 with 277.] 
What is said of the liver in different animals? 

[Compare 220-226 with 30-37 and 478-480.] 
Describe the lining membrane of the mouth and alimentary canal. 

[Compare 230-238 with 38-44, 50-53, 58 and 60-63.] 
Give an outline of the Chemistry of the Digestive Organs. 

[Compare 239-243 with 274 and 275.] 
Compare the digestive processes in different classes of animals. 

[Compare 261-266 with 192, 195, 373-377 and 438-446.] 
In what condition should the system be to take food without injury ? 
State the influence of exercise upon digestion. What does the health 
of the human system require ? 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 



129 



Fig. 86. 




Pig. 85. An Ideal View of the Uegaxs of Digestion, opened nearly the whole Length. 
— 1, The upper jaw. 2, The lower jaw. 3, The tongue. 4, The roof of the mouth. 
5, rhe oesophagus. 6, The trachea. 7, The parotid gland. 8, The sublingual gland. 
9, Tffe stomach. 10, 10, The liver. 11, The gall-cyst. 12, The duct that conveys the 
bile to the duodenum (13,1.3). 14, The pancreas. 15, 15, 15, 15, The small intestine. 
16, The opening of the small intestine into the large intestine. 17, 18, 19, 20, The large 
intestine. 21, The spleen. 22, The upper part of the spinal column. 

Fig. 86. Digestive Apparatus of a Fowl. — 1, The oesophagus. 2, The crop. 3, The 
second stomach. 4, The gizzard. 5, The liver. 6, The gall bladder. 7, The bile ducts. 
8, The pancreas. 9, The duodenum. 10, The large intestine, 11, The two cseca. 



130 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



SYNTHETIC TOPICAL EEVIEW. 



Mouth, 






Teeth, 






Salivary Glands, 






Pharynx, 






Qj^sophagus, 


ns. 




Stomach, 


Anatomy of. 




Intestines, 






Liver, 






Pancreas, 






Spleen. 






Alimentary Canal, Lining membrane of 






Mouth, " " 






Tongue, " " 






Palates, " " 






Teeth, " " 






Pharynx, " " 


. no. 




Oesophagus, Coats of 


Histology of. 




Stomach, " 






Intestines, " 






Liver, " 






Spleen, " 






Peritoneum. 






Secretions, Names of ^ 






" Character of 




Ceiap. VI. 


Mucus, 




■ Digestive 


Saliva, 




Organs. 


Gastric Juice, 


?20. 




Bile, 


Clietnistry of. 




Pancreatic Juice, 






Intestinal Juices, 






Changes in Food, 






Acids and Alkalies. 






Assimilation, 


^2L 




Chymification, 




Chylification, 


Physiology of. 




Destination of Chyle. 






Teeth, Preservation of 






" Removal of 






Food, Quantity of 


I 22. 




" Quality of 


Hygiene of. 




" Manner of taking 






Condition of the System. 






Vertebrates, Nutritive Apparatus of 






" Mouth and Teeth, 






" Stomach and Intestines, 


^23. 


' 


Invertebrates, Digestion in 


!- Comparalive 




Mollusca and Annulosa, Digestion in 

Radiata, 

Protozoa. " 


Splanchnology. 









State the Anatomy, the Histology, the Chemistry, the Physiology 
and the Hygiene, Human and Comparative, of the Digestive Organs. 



CHAPTER VII. 

ABSORPTION, 

282. We have observed the changes in food till its forma- 
tion into chyle — changes which have taken place in the ali- 
mentary canal, and which are included under the general 
term Digestion. The chyle, however, is virtually external to 
the animal body. The process by which it is conveyed 
within is called Absorption ; and the vessels conveying it are 
named Absorbents, , 

i 24. Anatomy of the Absorbents. — The Absorbent Vessels. Dis- 
tribution of the Lymphatics. The Thoracic Duct. The Lymphatic 
Duct. Position of Lymphatic Glands. Absorbent Veins. 

283. The Absorbents consist of certain blood-vessels, espe- 
cially the venous capillaries and the absorbents proper, viz., 
Lymphatie* Vessels and Glands. The lymphatic vessels of 
the small intestines are named Lac'teals. f 

284. The Lymphatic Vessels are distributed through 
most of the system. Few are found in the muscles, and none 
in the brain or spinal cord, though they doubtless exist there. 
They abound in the secreting membranes, especially in the 
skin and the mucous membrane. 

The finer lymphatics unite into trunks, which either accom- 
pany the blood-vessels and form the deep lymphatics, or run 
on the surface of organs or in the sub-areolar tissue, forming 
superficial lymphatics. From all parts of the body, these 
trunks run toward the root of the neck and unite in two 
main trunks which end in the venous system, viz., the Tho- 
racic and Lymphatic Ducts. 

The lymphatics of the lower limbs, of the abdomen, of the 

* Lat., lympha, water. f Lat., lac, milk. 

131 



132 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 




i 



'^1 it 



;\i>^fe\« 



. 87. 



jf t;if, Grfat Lymphatic 
Tru.nks.— 1, 2. Thoracic duct. 4, The ri<iht 
lymphatic duct. 5, Lymphatics of the thigh. 
6, Iliac lymphatics. 7, Lnmbar lymphatics. 
8, Intercostal lymphatics, a, Descending 
cava, b, Left innominate vein, c, Right inno- 
minate vein, d, Aorta, e, Ascending cava. 



left side of the head and neck 
and of the left upper limb 
form the Thoracic Duct; those 
of the right side of the head 
and neck and right upper 
limb form the Lymphatic Duct. 

285. The Thoracic Duct 
commences with a dilatation, 
named the " Eeceptaculum 
Chyli," or receptacle of the 
chyle. This vessel is formed 
by the convergence of lym- 
phatics from the lower ex- 
tremities, the intestines, stom- 
ach, spleen, pancreas, kidneys 
and the greater part of the 
liver. The " receptaculum 
chyli" is usually placed upon 
the second lumbar vertebra, 
a little to the right of the 
aorta. It soon passes behind 
the arch of that vessel, cross- 
ing over the oesophagus, and 
ascends on the left side to the 
root of the neck, where it 
curves downward and out- 
ward behind the great blood- 
vessels, and finally opens into 
the angle at the junction of 
two large veins. (Fig. 87.) 

286. The Lymphatic Duct 
is about an inch long, and has 
a similar termination on the 
right side of the body. 

287. The Lymphatic 
Glands through which the 

pass are somewhat 



ABSORPTION. 133 

hard, pinkish bodies, varying in size from that of a hemp- 
seed to that of a large pea. 

The lymphatic glands are found in the axilla of the arm 
(arm-pit) and in the groins ; chains of glands are found on 
each side of the neck ; a few in the arm ; also many about 
the bronchi or air-tubes and in the pelvis or abdomen, 
those of the lacteals being abundant in the Mes' entery ."^ 
(Fig. 87.) 

288. The veins of the intestines acting as absorbents unite 
with those coming from the stomach, the spleen and the pan- 
creas, thus forming the Portal vein, which enters the liver 
through a fissure in the concave surface. (Fig. 97.) 



I 25, Histology of the Absorbents. — Histology of the Lymphatic 
Vessels — Glands — Lymph. 

289. Most of the Lymphatic Vessels are long, thread- 
like, transparent tubes, with coats so exceedingly delicate 
that their structure is a matter of inference from that of the 
Thoracic Duct, which has three coats, like the veins. The 
larger lymphatic tubes are liberally supplied with valves 
formed by the infolding of the inner coat. These valves are 
arranged in pairs, and are much more numerous in the 
smaller than in the larger vessels. A very strong pair is 
placed at the opening of the thoracic duct into the large 
vein. (Figs. 87, 89.) 

290. The Lymphatic Glands are not well understood. 
They seem to be composed of a large number of vesicles or 
pouches, which communicate with each other, and also with 
the lymphatic tubes. These tubes or vessels, entering the 
gland, are called afferent vessels, and those emerging from it, 
efferent vessels. Each vesicle of the gland seems to connect 
with an afierent and an efierent vessel. (Fig. 90.) 

291. The Lymph consists of a fluid part containing nuclei, 
minute granules, and sometimes a few oily globules. 

* Gr., mesos, middle, and enteron, the intestine. 



134 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

Fig. 88. Fig. 89. Fig. 90. 




Fig. 88. A Single Lymphatic Vessel, much magnified. 

Fig. 89. The Valves of a lymphatic trunk. 

Fig. 90. A Lymphatic Gland, with several vessels passing through it. 



§ 26. Chemistry of the Absorbents. — Chemical Changes in tJie 
Absorbent System. 

292. We know little of the chemical changes which take 
place in the absorbent system ; but the chyle drawn from the 
large absorbent trunks near their entrance into the " recepta- 
culum chyli" is very different from that just absorbed by the 
lacteals. During its passage through these vessels and their 
glands it undergoes important alterations, assimilating it to 
the blood. 

293. The following table, by Carpenter, gives the relative 
proportions of the three chief ingredients of the chyle in 
different parts of the absorbent system. 

In the Afferent Lacteals, from the intestines to the mesen- 
teric glands : 

Fat in maximum quantity (numerous fat or oil globules). Albumen in 
medium quantity. Chyle-corpuscles, few or none. Fibrin almost 
entirely wanting. 



ABSORPTION. 135 

In the Efferent Ladeals, from the mesenteric gland to the 

Thoracic Duct: 

Fat in medium quantity. Albumen in maximum quantity. Chyle-cor- 
puscles very numerous, but imperfectly developed. Fibrin in me- 
dium quantity. 

In the Thoracic Duct : 
Fat in minimum quantity (few or no oil-globules). Albumen in medium 
quantity. Chyle-corpuscles numerous, and more distinctly cellular. 
Fibrin in maximum quantity. 

§ 37. Physiology of the Absorbents — Office of the Lymphatics. 
Absorbent Power of Different Tissues. Absorption in case of Disease. 
Imbibition of Animal Membranes. 

294. It was formerly supposed that the office of the Lym- 
phatics was excretive — that of conveying from the system 
portions of waste matter no longer of use ; but as these ves- 
sels are found to commence most frequently in tissues where 
nutritive changes are few — as there is a conformity in the 
nature of the fluids, chyle and lymph, the chief difference 
being due to the presence of fat and a large proportion of 
albumen in the chyle — as the two fluids are conveyed into 
the general current of circulation just before the blood is 
again transmitted into the system at large — the almost in- 
evitable inference is that lymph, like chyle, is a nutritious 
fluid. There is much evidence that the lymph is obtained 
from the blood, and it is not improbable that the lymphatics 
take up those crude materials which were absorbed directly 
by the veins and subject them to an assimilating agency 
resembling that acting upon the nutritive substances in the 
lacteals. 

295. The office of the lymphatics may also include an- 
other — assimilation. Disintegration of the tissues is every- 
where taking place. Every respiration, every heart-beat, 
every muscular movement, every thought, is produced at the 
expense of the life of some of the tissues. The whole lym- 
phatic system may be looked upon as one great assimilating 
or blood-making gland. 



136 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

296. Different membranes have different absorbent powers, 
and the power of the same membrane varies with change of 
condition. The most active is the mucous membrane ; thus, 
in the alimentary canal it takes up a large portion of the 
food ; in the lungs it absorbs gases in a state of solution. In 
this way are introduced into the system miasmatic and con- 
tagious exhalations. Fine, solid particles are sometimes ab- 
sorbed, as arsenic. Instances of poisoning are not uncommon 
among manufacturers of artificial flowers and green paper- 
hangings, arsenite of copper or "Scheele's green" being em- 
ployed in the coloring. 

297. Though much impeded by the cuticle, absorption 
takes place to a considerable extent through the skin, and 
the use of medicinal baths is based on this fact ; shipwrecked 
sailors, destitute of fresh water, find that thirst is relieved by 
immersing the body in salt water. Life is sometimes sup- 
ported for a time by immersing the patient in baths of milk 
or broth. 

298. In serous and synovial membranes, the fluids poured 
out into the joint in rheumatism and other inflammations 
are absorbed. Absorption is shown in areolar tissue, as in 
taking up dropsical fluids ; also by sub-cutaneous injections 
of a solution of morphia, to relieve suffering from neuralgic 
pain, from severe operations, obstinate cough and other 
irritations. 

Observations. — 1st, In cases of disease where no food is taken into the 
stomach, life is maintained by the absorption of fat. In consumption, 
even the muscles and more solid parts of the body are absorbed. 2d, 
Animals living in a half-torpid state during winter derive their nourish- 
ment from the same source. 

299. There are no visible openings in the membranes for 
the passage of these absorbable substances, but their entrance 
seems to be effected by a peculiar action of animal membranes 
which enables certain fluids to pass directly through them by 
a kind of imbibition, a process called endosmo' sis.^ 

* Gr., endon, within, and osmos, impulse. 



ABSORPTION. 137 

I 38. Hygiene of the Absorbents. — Conditions of Air affecting 
Absorption. Effect of Nutritious Food. Effect of the Removal of the 
Cuticle. 

300. The air should he as free as possible from impure vapors 
and gases; hence the importance of thorough ventilation, 
especially in the sleeping-room, since exhalations from the 
system are greater at night than by day. 

Observation. — In infectious diseases the impure air should be con- 
stantly carried from the room, and the nurse should approach the pa- 
tient on the side in which the currents of air are admitted. 

301. Moisture increases the activity of the absorbents; hence, 
persons living in marshy districts contract miasmatic and 
contagious diseases more readily than those living in a drier 
atmosphere. In such localities the house should be plenti- 
fully supplied with fresh air and kept dry by the use of fires. 
Especially is this necessary morning and evening in spring 
and autumn, and often in summer. 

Observation. — For the above reason the air of the sick-room should 
be kept dry ; otherwise the poisonous exhalations are absorbed by the 
lungs and skin both of the -patient and of the nurse, 

302. Nutritious food lessens the activity of the absorbents; 
hence, in cases of infectious diseases due attention should be 
given to the food of the attendants and of the family. Some 
persons use alcoholic stimulants or tobacco "to prevent taking 
disease," but these increase the activity of the absorbents and 
the liability to contract disease. A moderate amount of nu- 
tritious food will be more efficacious. 

Observation. — In handling poisons care should be faJcen that the cuticle or 
skin be unbroken, as absorption is very rapid when it is removed. In 
contagious diseases, if the skin is broken, it should be covered with ad- 
hesive plaster while at work over the patient. In handling dead bodies 
it is well to lubricate the hands with olive-oil or lard. The absorption 
of poisonous matter through a slight " scratch " or puncture of the cuti- 
cle, as the removal of a "hang-nail," has cost several valuable lives. 
12* 



138 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 

282. Chapter VII. Absorption. — Define Absorption and Absorbents. 

g/84:. Anatomy of the Absorbents. — 283. Of what do the Absorbents consist? Describe 
the Lacteals, 284. Where are the Lymphatic Vessels found? State the kinds of Lym- 
phatics. How are the Thoracic and Lymphatic Ducts formed ? 285. Speak of the Tho- 
racic Duct. 286. Describe the Lymphatic Duct. 287. Describe the Lymphatic Glands. 
Where found? 288. What is the Portal Vein ? 

§ 35. Histology of the Absorbents. — 289. Describe the coats of the Lymphatic Vessels. 
With what are the larger Lymphatic Tubes supplied? 290. What is the supposed com- * 
position of the Lymphatic Glands? 291. Of what does Lymph consist? 

g 36. Chemistry of the Absorbents. — 292. What is said of chemical changes occurring in 
the absorbent system ? 293. Give the proportions of the chief ingredients of Chyle in the 
Afferent Lacteals. In the Efferent Lacteals. In the Thoracic Duct. 

§ 37. Physiology of the Absorbents. — 294. What is the office of the Lymphatics? 295. 
What may the office of the Lymphatics include? 296. Speak of the absorbing power of 
the mucous membrane. 297, Illustrate the absorbent power of the skin. 298. What is 
fiaid of absorbent power of the serous and synovial membranes and the areolar tissue ? 
Observations. 299. Describe Endosmosis. 

§ 38. Hygiene of the Absorbents.— ZOO. What should be the condition of the air? Ob- 
eervation. 30L What influence has moisture? What care should be exercised by per- 
sons living in marshy districts? Observation. 302. What is the influence of nutritious 
food upon absorption ? Of alcoholic stimulants, etc.? Observation. 



ABSORPTION. 

Fig. 91. 



139 




Fm. 91. A Represextatiox of the Lymphatic Vessels and Glaxds — 1 '^3456 
The lymphatic vessels and glands of the lower limbs. 7, Lymphatic elands ' 8 'The 'com- 
mencement of the thoracic duct 9, The lymphatics of th'e kidney. 10. Of the stomach. 

1 fi' 17 18 Of .>; 5^- ^-' ^/ "'f ^"'.'f on^?' ^^' ^^' ^^" Lvniphatics and glands of the arm. 
16, 17, 18, Of the face and neck. 19, 20, Large veins. 21, The thoracic duct. 



140 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



SYNTHETIC TOPICAL EEVIEW. 



Absorption, 
Absorbents, 
Vessels, Lymphatic 
Thoracic Duct, 
Lymphatic Duct, 
Lymphatic Glands, 
Absorbent Veins. 
Lymphatic Vessels, 
" Glands, 

Lymph. 

Absorbent System, Changes in 

Lymphatics, Office of 
Membranes, Absorbent power of 
Absorption in disease, 
Imbibition of membranes. 
Condition of the air. 
Effect of nutritious food, 
" of removal of cuticle. 



Anatomy of. 



^25. 

Histology of. 

^26. 

Chemistry of. 

^27. 

Physiology of 

. ?28. 

Hygiene of. 



Chap. YII. 
TJie Absorbents. 



Give the Anatomy, the Histology, the Chemistry, the Physiology 
and the Hygiene of the Absorbent System of man. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE CIRCULATION. 

I 29, The Blood. Composition of the Blood. Relation of the Absorbent 
System to the Blood. 

303. As the contents of the absorbent vessels enter the 
bk)od-vessels, they undergo their last complete change into 
that remarkable fluid, the blood, which contains all the mate- 
rials for the support of every part of the animal fabric. 

The blood consists of a liquid portion named liquor san- 
guinis — the plasma or liquor of the blood, which holds in sus- 
pension multitudes of minute circular bodies, called blood- 
corpuscles; these are of two kinds,, the white or colorless, 
and the red ; the latter are so minute that no less than one 
hundred millions are said to exist in a single drop of blood ; 
the red color is due to their accumulation, as when in thin 
layers they appear yellowish. They contain only a slightly 
colored fluid, while the white corpuscles have, in addition, a 
nucleus and indistinct granules. 

304. The blood is constantly undergoing loss, from supply- 
ing material for the secretions, for nutritive changes in the 
solid tissues, and also in the blood itself. 

Observation. — The French call blood " chair coulant," running flesh, 
and with reason, since it not only contains the same constituents as 
flesh, but one-fifth of its weight is solid matter. 

305. In order that the blood with its cargo of supplies 
should fulfill its mission of nutrition, it must be kept con- 
stantly moving in a circuit including every part of the body ; 
this movement is called its Circulation, which takes place 
through the Heart and the Blood-vessels, which consist of the 
Arteries, Capillaries and Veins. 

141 



PAROTIO ELAND- -: 

COMMON CAROTID MTBPr- 

BXTERNfiL JUGULAR l/rW 

INTEBNAL JUGULAR VDN 

CLWICLS 



fiRflCf/m(«'';i^":-;Ji, 



mdialI' 




THE CIEGULATIOI^. 



143 



I 30. Anatomy of the Circulatory Organs. — Construction of the 
Heart. The Arteries, Veins and Capillaries, and their Relation to each 
other. The Aorta and its Divisions. Arrangement of the Veins. 

306. The Heart is a hollow muscle enclosed in a sac, 
named PeriGardium.^ In the male its proportion to the 
body is about 1 to 169 ; in the female, about 1 to 149. The 
heart is cone-like in shape, whence its triple division into 
base, body and apex. Its length is about five inches, and its 
basal diameter about four inches. It is everywhere free or 





Fig. 93. A Front View of the Heaht. — 1, The right auricle of the heart. 2, The 
left auricle. 3, The right ventricle. 4, The left ventricle. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Vessels 
through which the blood passes to and from the heart. 

Fig. 94. Diagram of the Heart and Valves. — 1, Descending vena cava, 2, Ascend- 
ing veua cava. 3, Right auricle. 4, Opening between the right auricle and ventricle. 
5, Right ventricle. 6, Tricuspid valves. 7, 8, Pulmonary artery, 9, Semilunar valves 
of the pulmonary artery. lOSf Septum between the two ventricles of the heart. 11, 11, 
Pulmonary veins. 12, Left auricle. 13, Opening between the left auricle and ventricle. 
14, Left ventricle. 15, Mitral valves. 16, 16, Aorta. 17, Semilunar valves of the aorta. 

unattached excepting at the base, which by means of the 
large blood-vessels is joined to the vertebral column, reach- 
ing from the region of the fourth dorsal vertebra to the 
eighth. The apex is directed downward, forward and to the 



* Gr., perif about, and kardia, heart. 



144 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



left, pointing to the junction of the fifth rib with its cartilage. 
The interior of the heart is divided by a longitudinal mus- 
cular septum or wall, into two chambers, named the right 
and the left chamber ; each of these is divided by a trans- 
verse constriction into two apartments, named the Au'ricle'^ 
and the Ven'tricle, the auricle occupying the basal end of 
the organ, and the ventricle the body and apex. There are 
virtually two hearts placed side by side, having no communi- 
cation with each other and differing in function. The right 
division is sometimes called the pulmonic heart, and the left 
the systemic heart. (Figs. 92, 93, 94.) 





Fig. 95. An Ideal View of a Portion of the Pulmonic Circulation.— 1, 1, A branch 
of the artery that carries the impure blood to the lungs. 3, 3, Capillary vessels. 2, 2, A 
vein through Avhich red blood is returned to the left side of the heart. 

Fig. 96. An Ideal View of a Portion of the Systemic Circulation.— 1, 1, A branch 
of the aorta. This terminates in the capillaries (3, 3). 2, 2, A vein through which the 
impure blood is can-ied to the right side of the heart. 

307. The Arteries are firm, membranous, cylindrical 
tubes, arising from the ventricles of the heart by two trunks ; 
that from the left ventricle, named the Aorta, is the systemic 
trunk; and that from the right ventricle, named the Pul- 
monic artery, is the pulmonic trunk. (Fig. 94.) 

308. The Aorta rises from the left ventricle for a short 
distance behind the sternum and then curves downward, 
forming a semicircular bend, called the Arch of the Aorta. 
It then passes downward, parallel with the spinal column, 



* Lat., auris, an ear. 



THE CIRCULATION. 145 

through the chest, and is given the name Thoracic aorta. In 
the abdomen it is named the Abdominal aorta. In the sacral 
part of the abdomen it finally separates into two divisions, 
called Iliac arteries. In the thigh, above the knee, its sub- 
division is named Femoral; below the knee. Anterior and 
Posterior Tibial arteries. From the Arch of the Aorta there 
are given off several large branches — the Carotid, which 
carries blood to the head; the Subclavian: its branches in 
the arm are named Brachial; below the elbow, Radial and 
Ulnar arteries. This systemic trunk (Figs. 92, 94) divides 
and subdivides into finer and finer arteries, like the branches 
from the trunk of a tree, excepting that these branches com- 
municate with each other in a finer network, till the ultimate 
ramifications, too minute to be seen by the naked eye, extend 
to every nook and corner and atom of the body. These final 
branches are called Capillaries. 

309. The Capillaries serve to connect the termination 
of the arteries with the beginning of the veins, so that it is 
impossible to tell just where the artery ends and the vein 
begins. In these minute vessels the blood comes in inti- 
mate contact with the substance of the tissues, making them 
the most important part of the whole circulatory system. 
(Figs. 95, 96.) 

310. The Veins thus commencing with the capillaries 
unite into larger and larger veins, converging toward the 
heart till the final union in two trunks, the Ascending and 
Descending Vence Cavce, that connect with the right auricle 
of the heart. The Ascending Vena Cava collects the blood 
from the lower extremities, pelvis and abdomen, and termi- 
nates in the right auricle of the heart. (Fig. 92.) The De- 
scending Vena Cava derives its branches from the head, neck, 
upper extremities and walls of the thorax. It terminates at 
the upper back part of the right auricle of the heart. The 
Aorta and Cavse constitute the large vessels of Systemic or 
General Circulation. (Figs. 92, 103.) 

311. The Pulmonary Veins are four in number, two for each 
lung. They commence with the capillaries of the lungs, and 

13 (i 



146 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



converge till a single trunk is formed for each lobe, or thi«e 
trunks for the right lung and two for the left ; but the trunk 
from the middle lobe of the right lung joins that from the 
■pj^ g^ upper lobe of the 

same side, and the 
four mouths discharge 
into the four angles 
of the left auricle. 
The Pulmonary Ar- 
tery which arises from 
the right ventricle of 
the heart, and is dis- 
tributed to the lungs, 
together with the pul- 
monary veins, consti- 
tute the Pulmonic or 
Lesser Circulation. 

312. The Portal 
Vein J so called be- 
cause it enters the 
Liver by a kind of 
fissure or gateway 
upon its under sur- 
face, is a short trunk 
about three inches in 
length, derived from 
the convergence of 
the veins of the stom- 
ach, spleen, pancreas 
and intestines ; this 
passes into the liver, 
where it divides and 
sub-divides, being distributed throughout the organ. This 
blood, with that of the HepaiHo^ artery, is returned to the 
general circulation by the hepatic veins. (Fig. 97.) 




Fig. 97. The Portal System of Veins. — a, Portal 
vein. 6, Splenic vein, c, Right gastro-epiploic vein. 
d. Inferior mesenteric vein, e, Superior mesenteric 
vein. /, Trunk of the superior mesenteric artery. 1, 
Liver. 2, Stomach. 3, Spleen. 4, Pancreas. 5, Duo- 
denum. 6, Ascending colon ; the transverse colon is 
removed. 7, Small intestine. 8, Descending colon. 



* Gr., hepar, the liver. 



THE CIECULATION. 



147 




§ 31. Histology of the Circulatory Organs,— T^e Pericardium 
and Endocardium. The Valves of the Heart. The Muscular Struc- 
ture of the Heart. The Coats of the Arteries — Of the Veins — Of the 
Capillaries. 

313. The Pericardium or heart-case is composed of two 
layers, one fibrous and the other serous. The fibrous layer 
forms a loose sac over the heart, being connected only at the 
base, from which it embraces the several blood-vessels, and 
becomes continuous with their 

external coats. The sei'-ous layer 
closely invests the heart, and also 
the great blood-vessels at its base, 
from w^hich it is reflected to line 
the fibrous layer of the pericar- 
dium. (Fig. 98.) 

314. The Endocardium or 
lining membrane of the heart is 
a thin, translucent membrane 
continuous with the inner coats 
of the blood-vessels. It consists 
of an epithelium, an exceedingly 
thin basement membrane and a 
fibro-elastic layer closely adhe- 
rent to the general muscular 

structure beneath. At the opening between the auricles and 
ventricles, at the commencement of the aorta and of the pul- 
monary artery, the fibro-elastic tissue forms four wings some- 
times called fibrous zones. It also forms valves by its little 
folds, enclosing muscular fibres. Those at the openings of 
the aorta and the pulmonary artery are named, from their 
shape, Semi-lunar Ydlwes. They form complete pockets, three 
in number, and have a triangular arrangement about the ori- 
fices. Behind each of these valves is a cavity or pouch iu 
the artery. 

315. Between the auricles and ventricles are valves also 
formed by foldings of the endocardium. On the left side are 
two, named Mitral valves. They form a kind of curtain, from 



Fig. 98. Diagram of the Heart with 
ITS Investment. — 1, 1, Right and left 
auricles. 2, 2, Right and left ventri- 
cles. 3, 4, Pericardium. 5, Pulmona- 
ry artery. 6, Aorta. 



148 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

whose floating edge small white cords {chordoe tendince) pass 
to some of the fleshy columns {columnoi carnob), thus prevent- 
ing the edge from being carried into the auricle. On the 
right side are three valves formed of three folds of membrane, 
called the Tri-cuspid valves. (Fig. 94.) 

316. The muscular structure of the heart is based upon the 
four fibrous zones, which furnish a point of departure for 
most of the muscular fibres in the ventricles. Those of the 
auricles and of the ventricles are quite independent of each 
other. The crossing fibres form networks arranged in three 
circular plates, the superficial, middle and internal. The 




Fig. 99. Spiral and involuted arrangement of the fibres of the heart. 
Fig, 100. Gyration of the fibres of the heart at the apex. 

superficial fibres commence at the base, and pursue a spiral 
course to the apex ; those of the right side running from 
right to left; those of the left side, from left to right. These 
two spiral sets encircle the apex and cross each other some- 
what like the lines in the figure 8, thus forming a remark- 
able whorl. (Figs. 99, 100.) 

Observation. — It is computed that not less than six tons of blood tra- 
verse the blood-vessels daily. The force required to expel this amount 
to different parts of the body often causes disease of the heart and its 
valves. The heart may become enlarged or its walls may be softened 
or thinned. The valves may become cartilaginous or ossified, or even 
broken. Not unfrequently the irregular action of the heart is sympa- 



THE CIRCULATION. 



149 



thetic. Whenever the heart or its valves are disorganized, the move- 
ments should be slow, the skin kept clean and protected by warm, 
porous clothing, and the food and drink unstimulating and taken in 
moderate quantities. 

317. The Arteries- have three coats continuous with the 
endocardium and the fibrous coat of the pericardium. The 
external coat is chiefly of white fibrous tissue; it is quite 
thin in the aorta and larger trunks, and disappears entirely 
in the smaller vessels. The middle coat is thick in the large 
arteries, and gradually becomes thinner till its disappearance 
before reaching the capillaries. The inner coat is thinnest 
and most elastic ; like the endocardium, it has an epithe- 
lium, a basement membrane and a layer of connective elastic 
tissue. The latter is intimately connected with the middle 
coat. 

318. The Capillaries J'ig. iol 
are exceedingly delicate 
tubes, which are continu- 
ous with the basement 
membrane of the internal 
coat of the arteries and 
veins. The network of the 
capillaries varies, adapt- 
ing itself to the particular 
tissue in which it is found ; 
thus, in the lungs it takes 
the form of the air-cells; 
in the muscles the meshes 
are elongated. The im- 
portant operations of secre- 
tion and the conversion of 
the nutrient materials of 
the blood into bone, muscle, 
etc., are performed in these vessels. (Figs. 95, 96.) 

319. The Veins are constructed, in general, like the ar- 
teries, but their coats are much thinner. Many of the larger 
veins, particularly in the limbs, have crescent-shaped valves, 

13* 




Fig. 101. Diagrams exhibiting the Arrange- 
ment OF THE Valves of Veins. — A, Vein laid 
open, showing the valves in pairs. B, Longi- 
tudinal section of a vein, indicating the mode 
in which the valves, by apposition of their free 
edges, close its calibre. The dilated condition 
of the walls behind the valves is also seen. C, 
Vein distended, showing how the sinuses be- 
hind the valves become dilated. 



150 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

usually arranged in pairs and opposite each other. These 
are formed by the doublings of the lining membrane, 
strengthened with intervening fibro-elastic tissue. Behind 
each valve there is a dilatation of the vein, forming a little 
pouch. (Fig. 101.) 

The veins are arranged in two sets — the superficial and the 
deep-seated ; the former lie immediately under the skin, pos- 
sessing no corresponding arteries ; the deep-seated veins 
directly attend the arteries, and usually take the same name. 
The largest arteries have one venous trunk ; the medium-sized 
have two, called venod comites. The walls of both arteries and 
veins are furnished with nutritive vessels and with nerves. 

Observation. — The action of the heart is independent of the Will. 
Anger or sorrow may disturb the regularity of its motions, and various 
emotions may so afTect its action as to produce faintness, but ere long it 
resumes its pulsation. . The ordinary contraction or pulse in mature life 
is about seventy-five in a minute. It is one of the remarkable instances 
of adaptation in the system, that the heart is so sensitive to the slightest 
changes in the state of the blood that its mode of contracting and its 
frequency indicate tlie existence of disease in its first stages, and yet the 
lieart itself is not sensible in any degree to external contact. 

^ 32. Chemistry of the Blood. — Analysis of the Blood. 

320. The analysis of blood by different chemists gives very 
different results, due chiefly to the variable composition of 
this fluid under different conditions connected with health, 
age, temperament, etc. The following table from Lehman 
shows the composition of 1000 parts of blood, calculated from 
the analysis of venous blood by Lecanu : 

Corpuscle. Plasma. Total. 

Water 344.000 451.45 795.45 

Hfematin 8.375 8.375 

Globulin 141.11 141.11 

Fat 1.155 .86 2.015 

Extractive matter 1.3 1.97 3.27 

Salts 4.06 4.275 8.335 

Fibrin 2.025 2.025 

Albumen 39.42 39.42 

500.000 500.000 1000.000 



THE CIRCULATION. 151 

321. According to this estimate, blood contains about 
eighty per cent, water and twenty per cent, solid matter. 

Blood charged with gases, especially oxygen, nitrogen and 
carbonic acid, has a saline taste, and is an alkaline fluid. 
When blood is exposed to the air, the fibrin coagulates, 
carrying down with it mechanically the corpuscle; this 
leaves an amber-like fluid called serum, in which the solid 
part or clot floats. 

^ 33. Physiology of the Circulatory Organs. — Necessity for 
Circulation — For the Double System of Circulation. Plan of Systemic 
Circvlation — Of Pulmonic Circulation — Their Relation to Each Other. 
Provisions necessary in a Circulatory Apparatus. The Circulatory Im- 
pulse. Prevention of a Re-flow. Additional Forces for maintaining 
the Current in the Arteries — In the Veins. Equalization of the Current. 
Supply of a due Proportion to each Organ. Provision for Contingencies. 

322. The tissues are so constructed that their vitality de- 
pends upon their activity, and their activity upon the amount 
of oxygen and nutritive material supplied, the oxygen being 
essential to the chemical combinations, without which there 
could be no new deposit of tissue particles, and also to fur- 
nish a stimulus, especially to the nervo-muscular system, 
and the nutritive matter being necessary to supply the waste 
produced by these chemical and vital activities; hence the 
necessity of a pneumatic apparatus for providing a constant 
and sufficient supply of oxygen, and of a hydraulic apparatus 
for conveying the prepared nutriment to every atom of the 
body, and also to remove the waste, worn-out particles. The 
former need is met by the exquisite mechanism of the lungs, 
and the latter by the no less refined mechanism of the heart 
and blood-vessels. The two apparatuses are brought into use 
and harmonious co-working by the double circulation of the 
blood, hence the necessity of the double heart. (Figs. 102, 103.) 

323. From the left ventricle the blood is forced into the 
aorta, to be diffused through the arteries to the capillaries 
in every part of the body ; thence it is returned by the veins, 
through the venae cavse, to the right auricle, which delivers 
it to the right ventricle ; this completes the Systemic Circula- 



152 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



tio7i. From the right ventricle it is thrown into the pul- 
monary artery, and through its branches to. the pulmonary 
capillaries, thence returned by the pulmonary veins, which 
coalesce into four trunks, and finally enters the left auricle, 
which immediately pours it into the left ventricle. Tliis com- 
pletes the Pulmonic Cireidation, and the two constitute one 
complete circuit of the double circulation. (Figs. 103, 105.) 




Fig. 102. A Diagram. — 1, Left ventricle of the heart. 2, 3, Aorta. 5, 5, Arteries that 
extend to the lower extremities. 6, 6, Arteries of the neck. 7, 7, Arteries of the arms. 

Fig. 103. A Diagram. — 1, Eight auricle of the heart. 2, 3, Large veins that open into 
the right auricle. 4, 4, Veins of the lower extremities. 5, 5, Veins of the arms. 6, Veins 
of the neck. The arrows show the direction that the blood flows. 



THE CIRCULATION. 



153 



824. Both circulations are carried on at the same time — 
that is, the auricles contract and dilate simultaneously ; the 
same is true of the ventricles, whose action immediately fol- 
lows that of the auricles. Hence, at the same instant, by 
the action of the ventricles, pure blood is thrown into the 
body, and impure blood into the lungs ; and at the same 
instant the auricles receive impure blood from the body, and 
pure blood from the lungs. 

Fig. 104. Fig. 105. 




Fis. 104. A Diagram.— 1, Left auricle. 2, Right auricle. I 
Tentricle. 5, 5, Pulmonary artery. 6, Trachea. 

Fig. 105. A Diagram.— 1, Right auricle. 2, Left auricle, t. 
ventricle. 5, 5, Riglit and left pulmonary veins. 6, Trachea. 



5, Left ventricle. 4, Right 
>, Right ventricle. 4, Left 



325. How to construct and keep in successful operation an 
apparatus which should secure the free circulation of the 
blood was no easy mechanical problem. 1st, It was necessary 
to provide the requisite motor-power at the starting-point; 
2d, to prevent a backward flow; 3d, to protect the arteries 
against the force of the heart ; 4th, to maintain a ceaseless 
current ; 5th, to equalize the pressure, especially in the capil- 
laries ; 6th, to ensure the proper relative quantity of blood 
to each organ ; and 7th, to provide for contingencies arising 
from accident or other abnormal action. 

326. 1. For giving the proper circulatory impulses, we find 
in each heart, instead of a single cavity, the auricle and 
ventricle, affording a far more powerful impulse. The walls 



154 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

of the ventricles are thicker thao the auricles, and the left 
ventricle is thicker than the right; also the peculiar spiral 
and circular arrangement of the muscular fibres of the ven- 
tricles is most eflTective in producing the greatest projectile 
force. Here comes in a beautiful example of the adaptation 
of each part to its destined use. 

2. A retrograde flow of blood is prevented by the valves 
of the heart and those of the blood-vessels communicating 
with the heart, and by the contraction of the muscular 
columns of the ventricles and also the little cords of the 
valves. 

3. The arteries are protected against the sudden action of 
the heart by the elastic fibres of their middle coat. 

4. The respiratory movements, the smooth surface of the 
inner arterial coat, the elastic and muscular character of the 
fibres of the middle coat of the arteries, aid in the main- 
tenance of the circulatory current. 

5. The intermittent pressure caused by the action of the 
heart is equalized by the elastic coat and also by the anasto- 
mosing or branching of the arteries. 

6. The proper amount of blood to each organ is secured by 
the adaptation of the size of the artery to the need of the 
part. Within certain limits, arteries are susceptible of varia- 
tion, and the supply of blood may be in some measure regu- 
lated by their contractility. 

7. Contingencies are also provided for, by the frequent 
anastomoses of the arteries, by their capability of distension, 
and also by their capability of positive enlargement by the 
increased nutrition of their walls. Hence, though obstruc- 
tions should exist in a blood-vessel, the organ may be meas- 
urably supplied with blood by lateral channels. 

327. The flow through the veins is continued by the com- 
bined action of several forces — viz., the capillary impulse: 
the movement of the blood in these microscopic tubes is steady 
and incessant; the suction-power of the dilating auricles, 
drawing the blood to the heart; the presence of valves, single 
in the small veins, double in the larger trunks, and some- 



THE CIRCULATION. 155 

times composed of three flaps ; and the thoracic respiratory 
movements. 

Observation. — Though our knowledge is so imperfect, our tracing so 
indistinct, our souls must be dead indeed if they do not respond to the 
exclamation of him of old, "I am fearfully and wonderfully made" — 
fearfully, for often, as in the heart-valves, there is but a gossamer web, 
a tendinous cord, between the life here and the life beyond ; wonder- 
fully, for in all the rounds of human art we find nothing which can at 
all compare, in perfect simplicity, in faultless skill, in matchless beauty, 
in the refinements of philosophy and in the subtleties of chemistry, with 
this vital workmanship which can be none other than that of God. Till 
we reach our utmost range of vision, it is ever the same unfolding of the 
care, the wisdom, the benevolence of Him to whom nothing is great and 
nothing small; and beyond our finiteness, His eye alone surveys the 
work of busy legions of artificers, ever building up what the wear and 
tear of life are ever breaking down ; His ear alone listens to the music 
of the million life-rills as they murmur on in their ever-ceaseless flow. 

§ 34. Hygiene of the Circulatory Organs. — Conditions favoring 
Free Circulation. Treatment of Divided Arteries. 

328. A natural and equal temperature should be preserved. 
The blood-vessels are contracted })y cold, hence a chill in 
any part of the body drives the blood to other parts. The 
chilled part is thus weakened, while the over-burdened parts 
suffer from congestion. If the surface is chilled, the blood 
is thrown upon the internal vital organs ; hence the necessity 
of warm clothing, and also frequent bathing, which favors 
the free action of the cutaneous vessels. 

329. The clothing should be loosely worn. Compression of 
any kind impedes free circulation. Pressure about the vital 
organs is especially injurious. Ligatures used to retain in 
place any article of apparel should be elastic. Tight dressing 
of the neck deprives the brain of its due amount of blood, 
and retards the free return of venous blood from this organ — 
an item of particular importance to students, public speakers 
and persons predisposed to apoplexy or any brain disease. 

330. Exercise promotes the circulation of the blood. By the 
action of the muscles the blood is propelled more rapidly 
through the blood-vessels, thus promoting a vigorous circula- 



156 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



tion in the extremities and skin. The best stimulants for a 
pale skin and cold extremities are a union of vigorous mus- 
cular exercise with agreeable mental action, and systematic 
bathing attended by thorough friction. 

331. The quality and quantity of the blood modify the action 
of the heart and blood-vessels. If this fluid is abundant and 
pure, the circulatory vessels act with more energy than when 
it is deficient in quantity or defective in quality. (See 
Digestive and Respiratory Organs.) 

Observation. — If blood in large quantities is drawn from the veins, 
the heart will beat feebly and the palse become weak. A similar effect 
is produced when the blood becomes vitiated by the inhalation of im- 
pure air. 

^ 35, Comparative Angiology. — Circulation of the Blood of Reptiles, 
of Amphibians, of Ilollusca, and of Insects. Other Mammals, of Birds, 
compared with the same in Man. 

The blood of Mammals is red, and the globules generally 
round. In some Mammals, as the Camel, they are elliptical. 
The hearts of Mammals have two auricles and two ventricles. 



Fig. 107. 






Fig. 106. Diagram of the Heart of the Mammal. — 7, Right auricle. 8, Right ven- 
tricle. 10, Pulmonic artery. 12, Pulmonic vein, 15, Left auricle, 16, Left ventricle. 

Fig. 107. Diagram of the Heaut of the Reptile. — 1, Pericardium. 2, Single ven- 
tricle. 3, Left auricle. 4, Right auricle. The arrows show the direction of the blood. 

Fig. 108. Diagram of the Heart of the Fish.— 1, Pericardium. 2, The ventricle 
that receives the blood from the body. 3, The ventricle that sends blood to the gills. 

The heart in quadrupeds lies on the median line of the body, 
and not a little to the left of it, as in man. There is a marked 
peculiarity in the distribution of the arteries of quadrupeds. 
In the long necks of grazing animals there is found a large 
number of small arterial trunks, which are termed ''Wonder 



THE CIRCULATION. 



157 



Nets." Were these trunks few and large, as in man, the life 
of the animal would be endangered by the constant dependent 
position of the head. 

332. The blood of Birds has the highest temperature of 
the vertebrate ani- 

Via. IflQ. 

mals. It is richer 
in globules than 
in man, and these 
corpuscles are 
elliptical. The 
heart of birds is 
highly muscular, 
and of large size 
in proportion to 
the bulk of the 
body. The aorta, 
at its commence- 
ment, divides into 
three large 
branches, of which 
the first two con- 
vey the blood to 
the head and neck, 
wings, and mus- 
cles of the chest ; 
while the third, 
curving down- 
ward around the 
right bronchus, 
becomes the de- 
scending aorta. 
There are "Won- 
der Nets" in va- 
rious parts of the 
body, especially in the arteries supplying the brain, eyes 
and legs. 

333. In Reptiles the blood is cold, that is, only slightly 




Fig, 109. AUTERiES op the Trunk of a Bird (the Grebe). 
— 1, The aorta. 2, The vena cava. 3, A cerebral artei-y. 
The small lines on each side represent the arteries and 
veins of the lungs. 



158 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



warmer than the temperature of the external medium in 
which they live, having fewer globules and lighter in color. 




"FiG.no. Circulation OF A Keptile (a Lizard).— 1, Heart. 2, Left auricle. 3, Right au- 
ricle. 4, Arches of the aorta. 5, Descending vena cava. 6, 10, Abdominal aorta. 7, Ascending 
vena cava. 8, Pulmonary arterj'. 9, Portal veins. 12, Lungs. 13, Stomach. 14, Intestines. 

Fig. 111. Blood-VivSSels of a Fish.— 1, Auricle. 2. Ventricle. 3, Arterial bulb. 4, 
Bronchial artery (gill). 5, Bronchial vessels. 6, 10, Dorsal artery. 7, Venous sinus. 
8, Portal vein. 9, Vena cava. 11, Intestines. 12, Kidneys. 



THE CIRCULATION. 



159 



The heart consists of two auricles and one ventricle. The 
arterial blood coming from the lungs is received into the left 
auricle, and the venous blood from all parts of the body into 
the right auricle ; both are poured into the single ventricle, 
thus mixing the pure and impure blood, which will account 
for the sluggishness of these animals. A portion of this mix- 
ture returns by the aorta into the different organs it is in- 
tended to nourish, while another part proceeds to the lungs by 
vessels springing from the ventricle or the aorta. (Fig. 107.) 

334. The Amphibians are cold-blooded animals. The blood- 
corpuscles are larger than in mammals. Their circulation is 
incomplete. 

335. In Fishes the blood is cold, usually red, and the cor- 
puscles small and bi-concave. The heart has one auricle and 
one ventricle, containing only impure blood ; this blood is 
sent to the gills, which answer the purpose of lungs, and 
after being there exposed to the oxygen of air contained in 
the water and purified, it is distributed immediately to the 
different parts of the body, without the interposition of a 
heart. From the body the blood is returned to the auricle. 

336. The circulation of Lobsters and Crabs, etc., is similar 
to the Mollusca. The heart consists of a single ventricle, 
and the veins are everywhere replaced by irregular cavities, 
called venous sinuses. 

Fig. 112. Fig. 113. 




Fig. 112. The Heart and Arteries of a Snail.— 2, The Stomach. 2, Intestines. 5, 
Heart. 6, Aorta. 7, Pulmonary arterj'. 

Fig. 113. The Heart and Arteries of a Lobster. — 1, The heart. 2, The abdominal 
artery. 5, 5, Venous sinuses. 6, The branchia from which the blood returns to the heart. 



337. In most of the Mollusca the circulation resembles 



160 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



that of fishes. 



Fig. 114. 




Fig. 114. Diagram of the Circulation of an 
Insect. — 1, Dorsal vessels in which the blood 
flows. 2, The lateral currents. The arrows 
show the outward and the inward current. 



The heart has usually a ventricle, whence 
spring the arteries and one 
or two auricles which carry 
the arterial blood from the 
respiratory apparatus which 
this liquid reaches by ven- 
ous tubes more or less 
complete. 

338. Insects have neither 
arteries nor veins. The cir- 
culation, such as it is, is 
animated by the action of a 
vessel called dorsal, which 



is situated above the digestive tube. 

Observations. — "In worms (as the leech and earth-worm) there exists 
a complete vascular apparatus, but generally no heart ; the blood is set 
in motion by movements of the vessels themselves, and hence the circu- 
lation of the blood is irregular. 

"In polyps there exists a kind of circulation produced by the action 
of the vibratile cilia with which the walls of the cavity, acting at once 
as stomach and intestines, are provided ; by means of these cilia the 
contained liquids are kept constantly in motion. This cavity is some- 
times single, but in some it sends branches to various parts of the 
body." 



THE CIECULATION. 161 

ANALYTIC EXAMINATION, 
Chapter VIII.— The Circulation. 

§39. The Blood.— BOS. From what source is the blood derived? Of what does the 
hlood consist? 304. For what purpose is the blood coustautly undergoing loss ? Observa- 
tion. 305. Why must the blood be kept in circulation ? Name the Circulatory Organs. 

§30. Anatomy of the Circulatory Organs. — 306. Describe the Heart. 307. What are 
the Arteries? 308. From what part of the heart arises the Aorta? Give its name and 
branches. 309. Describe the capillaries. 310. Give the- course of the Yeins. What con- 
stitutes the large vessels of the Systemic Circulation? 311. Describe the Pulmonary 
Veins. What constitutes the Pulmonic Circulation? 312. Describe the Portal Vein. 

§31. Histology of the Circulatory Organs. — 313. Of what is the Pericardium com- 
posed? 314. What can you say of the Endocardium? Where does the fibro-elastio 
tissue form four rings ? Where are the Semilunar valves? 315. Where are the Mitral 
valves? Where the Tricuspids? 316. Upon what is the muscular structure of the heart 
based? What is said of the superficial fibres? Observation. 317. Name and describe the 
coats of the arteries. 318. Give the structure of the Capillaries. 319. How are the veins 
constructed ? Describe the valves in the veins. How are the veins arranged ? Observation, 

§ 33. Chemistry of the Blood.— 320. State the analysis of the blood. 321. What per 
cent, of solid matter and water in the blood? When the blood is exposed to the air, what 
changes take place ? 

§ 33. Physiology of the Circulatory Organs. — 322. Why is circulation necessary? Why 
a double heart ? 323. Give the Systemic circulation; the Pulmonic. 321. What is said 
of the contraction and dilatation of the auricles and ventricles ? What is the effect of such 
action? 325. In the construction of the circulatorj' system, what was necessary? 326. 
By what means are proper circulatory impulses given ? How is a retrograde flow of blood 
prevented ? How are the arteries protected against sudden action of the heart? How is 
the current maintained ? How is the intermittent pressure caused by the action of the 
heart equalized? What secures the proper amount of blood to each organ? What pro- 
vision is there for contingencies ? 327. How is a continuation of the flow through the 
veins affected ? Observation. 

§ 34:, Hygiene of the Circulatory Organs.— B2S. What temperature should be preserved ? 
329. Why should the clothing be worn loosely ? 330. What is the influence of exercise on 
circulation ? 331. What is said of the quality and quantity of the blood ? Observation, 

§ 35. Comparative Angiology. — 332. What is said of the blood and circulatory organs 
of Mammals? 333. Of Birds? 334. Of Reptiles? 335. Of Amphibia? 336. Of Fishes? 
837. Of Lobsters? 338. Of Mollusca, etc.? 339. Of Insects? 

UNIFIC REVIEW, 

[Compare 303 with 294-299 and 239-243.] 
Give in full the changes in food during Primary Assimilation. 

[Compare 304 with 340-346.] 
How does the blood contribute to the growth of the different parts of the body? 

[Compare 305 with 306-312.] 
Name and describe the organs by which the blood effects this contribution, 

[Compare 306 with 332-339.] 
Compare the heart of man with that of other mammals, and with those of Birds, etc. 

[Compare 307-312 with 333-339.] 
Compare the blood-vessels in the different classes of animals. 

[Compare 328-331 with 184, 185, 194, 195, 247-256, 445 and 519-532.] 
What conditions favor free circulation? What can you say of the food in this con- 
nection? How is exercise essential to the health of the nervous tissue? In con- 
nection with circulation, what is said of clothing and bathing? 
14 «■ 



162 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



SYNTHETIC TOPICAL EEVIEW. 



Chap. VITI. 

The Oireulatory 

Organs. 



Blood, its circulation, 

^ " loss of, 
Circulatory Organs. 
Heart, 
Arteries, 

Aorta, divisions of, 
Capillaries, 
Veins, 

Ascending Vena Cava, 
Descending " 
Pulmonary Veins, 
Portal Vein. 
Pericardium, 
Endocardium, 
Valves of the heart. 
Muscular structure of the heart, 
Arteries, their coats, 
Capillaries, " 
Veins, " 

Analysis of the blood. 

Necessity of double circulation, 
Systemic Circulation, 
Pulmonic Circulation, 
Their relation to each other, 
Necessary provisions. 
Circulatory impulse. 
Prevention of a retrograde flow, 
Protection of the arteries. 
Current maintained, 
Equalization of the current. 
Due supply to each organ, 
Provision for contingencies, 
Flow through the veins. 

Conditions favoring free circulation. 

Mammals, circulation of the blood of 

Birds, 

Reptiles, ** 

Amphibians, " 

Fishes, " 

Lobsters, " 

Mollusca, " 

Insects, " 

Give the Anatomy of the several parts of the Circulatory System, 
Human and Comparative, the Histology, the Chemistry, the Physiology 
and the Hygiene. 



?29. 

The Blood. 



§30. 

A naiomy of. 



§3L 

Histology of. 



\ §32. 

J Chemistry of. 



§33. 

Physiology 
of 



§34. 

Hygiene of. 



35. 

parative 
Angiology. 



Fig. 115. 




Fig. 117.— 3, 4, Tloart. 5, Aorti 
cendins cava. 9, Abdoniiniil aortii 
vian artery. 13, Subclavian vein, 
16, Brachial vein. IT, Kidney. 



6, Pulmonary arterj\ 7, Descondinoj cava. 8, As- 
lu, Feniiiral artery. 11, Femoral vein. 12, Subcla- 
im, Carotid artery and vein. 15, Brachial artery. 
163 



CHAPTEE IX. 

ASSIMILATION. 

I 36, Assimilation, General and Special. Changes included under Sec- 
ondary Assimilation. Secretion, or Special Assimilation. Excretion, 
characteristic of all Secretory and Excretory Glands. The Kidneys. 

339. In the human body, as elsewhere, the essential con- 
dition of physical life is death. While the vital force holds 
the mastery over the chemical forces, the more frequent the 
death-knell of the particles, the more abounding is the life. 
They perform their mission, yield up their vitality and pass 
away, while their places are supplied with new material. 
This new material is obtained from the food after its proper 
assimilation. As before stated, the processes by which food 
is converted into chyle, and then into blood, may be included 
under Primary Assimilation, while the changes which con- 
vert portions of the blood into solid tissue may be termed 
Secondary Assimilation; both of these we will include under 
the head of General Assiinilation, and the processes of secre- 
tion under Special Assimilation. 

340. Secondary Assimilation, or Nutrition of the Organs 
and Tissues, consists of the following stages : First, A nutri- 
tive fluid or plasma exudes from the blood, through the coats 
of the capillaries, filling the finest interstices of the tissues 
between the capillary networks, and bathing all the ele- 
mentary parts of these tissues. The nature of this plasma is 
the same in all parts of the system, and it is sometimes 
thought to be identical with the liquor sanguinis of the blood, 
but this is doubtful ; it is more probable that the exuded 
plasma destined for the nutrition of the tissues is of a purer 
nutrient material. 

Second, The nutritive process consists in the exercise of a 
certain selective act by the elementary parts of tissues and 
164 



ASSIMILATION. 165 

organs, enabling them to appropriate to themselves such por- 
tions of the nutritive fluid as are suitable, either with or with- 
out further change, to renew, molecule by molecule, their 
worn-out substance. " The nucleated cells of the epithelium 
and epidermis, the corpuscles of the gray matter of the brain, 
the tubular fibres of the white nervous tissue, the complex 
fibres of the striated muscles, the simple fibrous forms of the 
contractile non-striated muscles, the fibres of the fibrous and 
areolar tissues, and lastly, the consolidated substance, with 
the remnants of cells imbedded in it, as in cartilage and 
bone, — each derives from the exuded plasma of the blood, 
and assimilates its required constituents." 

Third, The result of the act of assimilation is to leave a 
residual fluid in the interspaces of the tissue-elements outside 
the capillary vessels. The nature of this fluid must differ in 
the different tissues, inasmuch as different tissues make dif- 
ferent appropriations. 

Fourth, The final residue of the exuded plasma — that which 
is not taken up by the tissues nor lymphatics — is prob^fbly 
taken up by the venous capillaries. 

Fifth, With the final residuum are mingled the effete par- 
ticles of waste from the tissues, which also enter the venous 
blood, through the walls of the venous half of the capillaries 
and of the minute veins. These processes, though separately 
described, are, of course, in the living body, all going on at 
the same time, and continuously, and, in a healthy condition, 
with a perfect balance of action. 

341. Nutrition not only supplies the waste, but in new 
growth, new cell-elements, or germinal centres, are constantly 
reproduced and developed. This process occurs, after the 
body has attained maturity, in the epidermis, nails, hair, the 
epithelial tissues, and probably the gray nervous substance, 
and perhaps in some of the other tissues. 

342. Special Assimilation or Secretion is the separation 
from the blood of materials in a more or less fluid condition, 
through a gland or membrane. After assimilation or secre- 
tion, the products are discharged from the ducts of the glands 



166 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

or the surfaces of the membranes, and are used for certain pur- 
poses in the living economy or eliminated from the system. 

343. The secreting glands are the liver, the pancreas, the 
salivary and the lachrymal glands ; the true mucous glands 
of the nose, mouth, fauces, pharynx, oesophagus, duodenum 
and those of the skin ; the simple tubular glands of the 
stomach and intestines; the sebaceous and the mammary 
glands. The secreting membranes are the raucous, serous 
and synovial membranes. 

344. Excretion is effected by glands only, and the ediicts 
are eliminated from the blood and thrown out of the system. 
The excretory glands are the kidneys, the sweat glands of the 
skin, to a certain extent the liver, and perhaps the intestinal 
tubuli, especially of the large intestine, also the sebaceous 
glands of the skin, and lastly, the lungs, wdiich eliminate car- 
bonic acid from the blood. 

345. In all cases of Secretion and Excretion there is in- 
variably found, even in the ultimate ramifications of the 
gland-ducts, a basement membrane covered by a layer of epi- 
thelial cells. All glands are very vascular, and receive large 
quantities of blood. In many secretory processes the epithelial 
cells are ruptured, and their contents, and sometimes the cells 
themselves, escape as an essential part of the secretion itself, 
as in the saliva, pancreatic fluid, gastric juice, the sebaceous 
and mucous secretions, and perhaps the bile. 

346. The Kidneys lie one on each side of the spinal 
column, in a line with the lowest dorsal and the two or three 
upper lumbar vertebrae; the right kidney is a little lower 
than the left. Their shape is that of a bean, and their color 
a brownish red. They are made up of two very different 
substances, one covering the whole organ, called the Cortical 
substance ; the other is called the Medullary substance, and 
consists of a series of pyramids, with their bases toward the 
surface of the organ, and their summits or renal papillae 
toward the fissure. The substance of the kidney is mainly 
composed of secretory tubes, named Uri'niferoiis tubules, and 
blood-vessels with little connective tissues. Tliese tubes are 



ASSIMILATI01S-. 



167 



lined with an epithelium, which secretes the urine. This 
secretion is conveyed to the bladder by a cylindrical tube 
called the Ureter. (Figs. 116, 117.) 

347. The kidneys receive a very large supply of blood, and 
they are the only glands that eliminate certain nitrogenized 
substances from the blood. 

Observation. — The retention of the secretion of the kidneys should 
never be allowed by the young or the old, the healthy or the diseased, 
as suppression of the secretion of these glands immediately affects the 
whole system, especially the nervous centres. Both the quantity and 
color of this secretion indicate the condition or health of the body. 

Fig. 117. 




Fig. 116. Longitudinal Section of a Kidney. — 1, Cortic;il substances. 2, Renal 
pyramid. 3, Renal papillae. 4, Pelvis. 5, Ureter. 6, Renal artery. 7, Renal vein. 8, 
Branches of the latter vessels in the sinns of the kidney. 

Fig. 117. Diagram of the Structdre of the Kidneys. — 1, Two nriniferous tubules 
of the cortical substance lined with a pavement epith.eliuni. 2, Dilatation of a tubule at 
its extremity. 3, Branches of the renal artery ending in vessels which enter the dilata- 
tions as seen at 4, .5. 6, Knot of blood-vessels freed from its investment. 7, Veins 
emerging from the vascular knots. 8, Plexus formed by the latter veins among the 
tiriDiferous tubules, from which plexus originate the branches of the renal vein. 



168 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 

Chapter IX, — Assimilation. 

§ 36. Assimilation, General and Special. — oiO. Distinguish between Primary and Sec- 
ondary Assimilation; also General and Special Assimilation. 341. State the first stage 
in the nutrition of the organs and tissues. "What is the second? The third? The 
fourth? The fifth? 342. How are new cell-elements produced? Where docs this pro- 
cess occur after the body has attained maturity? 343. What is Special Assimilation? 
344. Name the secreting glands and membranes. 345. How is excretion effected ? Name 
the excretory organs. 346. What is said of Secretion and Excretion ? In many secre- 
tory processes what happens? 347. Describe the kidneys. 348. What is their office? 
Observation. 



UNIFIC REVIEW. 

[Compare 340 with 3.] 
In studying Assimilation, with what distinctions between organized and 
unorganized bodies do you become acquainted ? 

[Compare 341 and 342 with 11-14, 38, 39,- 102, 103, 159, 164, 166, 167 and 412.] 
Speak of the structure of cells, and tell how their growth is promoted. 

[Compare 344 with 230-238 and 30-37.] 
Name the secreting glands and membranes, and state the changes caused 
by their secretions. 

[Compare 345-348 with 11, 12, 230-238, 343, 359-362, 486 and 487.] 
Distinguish between excretion and secretion. Of what advantage is excre- 
tion? 



?36. 

Assimilation, 
General and 
Special. 



SYNTHETIC TOPICAL REVIEW. 

Assimilation, 

" Secondary, First Stage, 

" " Second " 

« " Third " 

« " Fourth " 

" Fifth " 

Secretion, 

" its glands and membranes, 

Excretion, 

Secretion and Excretion, 
Kidneys. 

State what you know of Assimilation, general and special, Secretion 
and Excretion. 



Assimilation. 



CHAPTEK X. 

TEE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 

I 37. Anatomy of the Eespiratory and Vocal, Organs. — The 

Organs of the Voice and of Respiration — The Larynx — Trachea — 
Bronchi — Lungs. 

348. The Respiratory and Vocal Organs consist of 
the Larynx, the Trachea, the Bronchi and the Lungs, the 
whole being acted upon by a complicated series of muscles. 

349. The Larynx, the organ of the voice, is a short, quad- 
rangular, cartilaginous cavity, extending from the root of the 
tongue and the hyoid bone to the trachea, with which it bo- 
comes continuous below. It is separated from the spinal 
column by the pharynx, into y>-hich it opens above by a tri- 
angular and oblique aperture. 

The Larynx is composed of five principal parts — the Thy'- 
roid, the Cri'coid, the two Aryte'noid cartilages and the Ejpi- 
glot'tis. The Thyroid"^ is the largest cartilage. It consists 
of two lateral, quadrangular, winglike plates, which meet in 
front and form the prominence called pomum Adami (Adam's 
apple). This cartilage is connected with the hyoid bone 
above and with the cricoid cartilage below. (Figs. 118, 119.) 

The Cricoid 'f cartilage is about one-fourth of an inch wide 
in front and one inch behind. This cartilage connects above 
with the thyroid cartilage by an articulation, permitting tlie 
latter to move downward and forward and also in the reverse 
direction ; below, it communicates with the first ring of the 
trachea. 

The Arytenoid'^, cartilages are two in number, small, trian- 

*Gr., thureos, a shield, f Gr., krikos, a ring. JGr., arutaina, a pitcher, 
lo H 169 



176 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



gular and curved. They are placed upon the summit and 
back part of the cricoid cartilage, forming articulations. 

The Epiglottis is oval-shaped, having its convex surface 
toward the mouth. It stands in a vertical position above 
the aperture of the larynx, which is closed by it in the act of 
swallowing. (Figs. 117, 118.) 

350. The Trachea is a vertical tube about an inch in 
diameter and four inches in length. It is continuous with 



Fig. 118. 



Fig. 119. 





Fig. 118. A Side View of the Cartilages of the Larynx.—*, The front side of the thy- 
roid cartilage. 1, The os hyoides (hone at the base of the tongue). 2, The ligament that 
connects the hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage. 3, 4, 5, The thyroid cartilage. 6, The 
cricoid cartilage. 7, The trachea. 

Fig. 119. A Back View of the Cartilages and Ligaments of the Larynx. — 1, The 
posterior face of the epiglottis. 3, 3, The os hyoidea. 4, 4. The lateral ligaments which 
connect the os hyoides and thyroid cartilage. 5, 5, The posterior face of the thyroid car- 
tilage. 6, 6, The arytenoid cartilages. 7, The cricoid cartilage. 8, 8, The junction of the 
cricoid and the arytenoid cartilages. 12, The first ring of the trachea. 

the larynx, and extends to the third dorsal vertebra, where it 
divides into two branches called Bronchi. The trachea is 
separated from the spinal column by the oesophagus. (Figs. 
121, 122.) 

351. The Bronchi* carry air to their respective lungs 
and again divide, sending a branch to each lobe. These 



* Gr., brogchia, the windpipe or throat. 



THE EESPIRATOEY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 171 

divisions, called bronchise, are repeated until each ultimate 
ramification terminates in a dilatation called an avr-cell 
(Fig. 121.) 

^ 352. The Lungs, consisting of two divisions, are situated 
in the cavity of the chest, enclosing between them the heart 
and the great blood-vessels. They accurately fill the cavity, 
adapting themselves to the varying size attending respira- 
tion. They have the form of a double but very irregular 
cone, with the apices above and- the basal ends below. The 
outer surfaces are convex, fitting the form of the chest; the 
inner surfaces are concave, conforming to the shape of the 
heart; the basal portion is also concave, owing to the upward 



Fig. 121. 



Fig. 120. 




tiQ. 121. The Bhonoiih!.—!, Outline of rlEht liin^ 2 Oiitlln. „f . « ■ 
L.r,„x and trachea. 5, 6, 7, 8. Bronchial tubes. 9, 9 i^ir tn" '"^^ '' '' 

pressure of the diaphragm. They are everywhere unattached 
excepting at the root, where they are iirmly secured by the 
pulmonary ligaments, the pulmonary artery, the pulmonary 
veins and nerves and the bronchial tubes. The lungs are 
closely invested with a serous membrane, named «&«ra The 
right lung is shorter than the left, but wider and of somewhat 
greater bulk. It is divided into three lobes, the middle lobe 
being the smallest, and the lowest one the largest The left 



172 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



lung has two lobes, of which the lower is the larger. (Figs. 
120, 121.) 

§ 38. Histology op the Eespiratory and Vocal Organs. — 
Minute Structure of the Larynx — The Trachea — The Bronchi — The 
Lungs and Pleura, 

353. With the exception of the epiglottis, the so-called 
cartilages of the Larynx are true cartilage, and in advanced 
life are strongly disposed to ossify. They are invested with 
a fibrous membrane called perichon'drium.^ The articula- 
tions of the cricoid cartilage are lined with synovial mem- 
brane and covered with capsular ligaments. The epiglottis 
is of a soft, elastic nature, fibro-cartilaginous in structure and 
invested with mucous membrane. (Fig. 119.) 





Fig. 122. A View of the Larynx, showing th^ Vocal Ligaments.— 1, The anterior 
edge of the larynx. 4, The posterior face of the thyroid cartila^:e. 5, 5, The arytenoid 
cartilages. 6, 6, The vocal ligaments. 7, Their origin within the angle of the thyroid 
cartilage. 9, 10, The glottis. 

Fig. 123, An Ideal Section of the Lartnx. — 1, The trachea. 2, 2, The lower vocal 
cords. 3, 3, The upper vocal cords. 4, 4, Rinia glottidis, or glottis. 5, 5, Cavities be- 
tween Tipper and lower vocal cords. 

354. In the cavity of the larynx the mucous membrane is 
reflected at each side, outward and up^vard, forming a pair 
of pouches, called the ventricles of the larynx. Just below 



* Gr., peri, around, and chondros, a cartilage. 



THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 173 

these ventricles are the true vocal eords, .extending from a 
small process on the fore part of each Arytenoid cartilage to 
the recessed part of the Thyroid cartilage. They are com- 
posed of yellow elastic tissue covered by mucous membrane, 
and form two ridges, having very fine, smooth edges turned 
toward each other and placed accurately on the same level. 
(Figs. 122, 123.) 

355. The Trachea is made up of cartilage, fibrous tissue, 
muscle and mucous membrane. The cartilaginous part con- 
sists of flattened rings or rather segments of circles, as they 
are wanting in that part of the tube next to the spine. The 
last ring is so modified as to accommodate it to the two first 
rings of the bronchi. The fibrous part is of yellow elastic 
tissue. It commences at the cricoid cartilage, and not only 
covers the rings in front, but forms for each a distinct sheath, 
thicker in front, and gradually losing itself with the termina- 
tion of the rings. The posterior third of the trachea has a 
basis of strong, elastic fibrous tissue, arranged in longitudinal 
bands. The muscular portion has a simple layer of fibres 
running transversely, being attached to the ends of the car- 
tilaginous rings and to the connecting tissue. The trachea is 
lined with mucous membrane. (Fig. 121.) 

356. The Bronchi are constructed like the trachea, ex- 
cepting in the ultimate bronchial ramifications, where the 
cartilages are composed of several pieces distributed around 
the tube, and the muscular fibres form a continuous layer. 
The cartilaginous element finally disappears, when the tubes 
consist only of fibro-elastic membrane with muscular fibres 
and a lining mucous membrane. (Fig. 121.) 

357. The Lungs are made up of numerous small, poly- 
hedral, primary lobules or clusters of air-cells, which unite into 
larger secondary lobules. The lobules seem to have no com- 
munication with each other, each primary lobule being in itself 
a miniature lung, performing independent functions. It has 
been calculated that no less than eighteen thousand of these 
air-cells group around each terminal tube, giving a sum-total 
of not less than six hundred millions. (Figs. 120, 124.) 

15* 




174 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

The air-cells are connected together by fibro-elastic tissue, 
which renders them highly elastic. The cells are surrounded 
by fine networks of capillary vessels, the terminations of the 
branches of the pulmonary artery which accompany the 
branches of the bronchi. The tra- 
chea, bronchial tubes and air-cells 
are lined with a mucous membrane 
having a ciliated epithelium. 

Observation. — The independent cluster 
of air-celis or lobules which compose the 
lungs may, one or more, become diseased, 
or their epitlielium may be affected and 
the other portion of the lung be healthy. 

Fig. 124. Diagram of Two 358^ The PlEURA is a SCrOUS 

Primary Lobules of the Lungs, i • 1 t 1 

magnified.— 1, Bronchial tube, uiembraue which liues the thorax, 

2, A pair of primary lobules ecu- and then is reflected from the root 

nected by fibro-elastic tissue. 3, „ , , . , „ . 

3, 3, Inter-cellular air-passages. of Cach luug OVCr itS SUrfaCC. A 

4, 4, 4, Air-cells. 5, Branches of fold of this membrane cxtcuds from 

the pulmonary artery and vein. ,-, . ■, t . j^i t i 

the root downward to the diaphragm, 
and is called the pulmonary ligament. The pleural cavity 
is lubricated by the serous secretion, thus preventing friction 
during the respiratory movements. By the approximation 
of the two pleurffi in the median line, they form the medias'- 
tinum, or partition of the thorax, which contains the heart 
enclosed within its pericardium. (Figs. 16, 120.) 

^ 39. Chemistry of the Eespiratory and Vocal, Orga^ns. 

359. Respiration consists of two conjoint processes — that 
of supplying to the body the requisite amount of vitalizing 
oxygen by inspiration, and that of removing from the body 
the deleterious carbonic acid by expiration. The source of 
the oxygen is the air ; the sources of carbonic acid are the 
blood and the tissues. Some carbonic acid is generated in 
the blood, both from the respiratory or heat-giving elements 
of food, which chiefly enter the blood and are there oxidized, 
and from the changes of growth and decay to which the 
corpuscles of the blood are themselves subject. It is also 



THE RESPIRATOEY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 175 

probable that some intermediate or partly oxidized products 
of the decomposition of solid tissues undergo further oxida- 
tion in the blood. 

360. We find the main source of carbonic acid, however, 
in the tissues. It appears both as a product of their natural 
decay, and of muscular and nervous activity. The sum of all 
the chemical changes of the body is oxidation, and the chief 
product of this oxidation is carbonic acid. 

361. The proportions of oxygen and carbonic acid in ve- 
nous and arterial blood are — 

Oxygen. Carbonic Acid. 

100 vols, venous blood 5 vols. 25 vols. 

100 vols, arterial blood 10 vols. 20 vols. 

It has also been found that the proportions of oxygen and 
carbonic acid in venous blood returning from muscles at rest 
are — oxygen, 7.5 vols., carbonic acid, 31 ; from muscles in 
action: oxygen, 1.265 vols., carbonic acid, 34.4. 

362. The exchalige of oxygen and carbonic acid in the 
capillaries is effected partly by physical and partly by chem- 
ical processes. The physical process is in accordance with 
the law of the " diffusion of gases." Two gases of different 
densities, and having no chemical affinity for each other, will 
intermix when brought into contact, and also when separated 
by a porous septum, provided they have no chemical affinity 
for that septum. These are the exact conditions in the capil- 
laries ; the oxygen and carbonic acid are the two gases, the 
capillary walls, the porous septum. In addition to this phys- 
ical process there is a chemical process; the venous blood has 
a strong affinity for oxygen, hence readily unites with it in 
the pulmonic capillaries. When the arterial blood reaches 
the systemic capillaries, it yields its oxygen to the elements 
of the decomposing tissues which surround them. The car- 
bon and hydrogen in their nascent state, or at the moment of 
liberation, seize the oxygen with great avidity, and give in 
exchange carbonic acid and water. 

363. The air of expiration differs from that of inspiration 
not only in its increase of carbonic acid, but in that of moisture 



176 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

and of temperature. As a rule, the expired air is saturated 
with moisture. The drier the external air, the greater the 
pulmonary exhalation, for in breathing air already saturated 
only so much more can be added as the higher temperature 
of the body will enable it to dissolve. The pulmonary ex- 
halation has, besides water and carbonic acid, traces of am- 
monia, chlorides, urates, and even some albuminous sub- 
stances ; it readily undergoes decomposition. 

364. The heat of the body, often called animal heat, is the 
result of the various chemical actions. The temperature of 
the tissues generally ranges from 98° to 100° ; that of blood 
from 100° to 102°, The blood varies in temperature in dif- 
ferent partSj being warmest in the hepatic veins. 

§ 40. Physiology of the'Eespiratory and Vocal Organs. — 
Objects of Respiration. Two Modes of Respiration. Renovation of the 
Air in the Lungs. Amount of Air in each Respiration. Conditions 
affecting the Number of Respirations. Modifications of Respiratory 
Movements. Double Function of the Larynx. Resemblance between the 
Action of the Vocal Cords and Reed Listruments. Conditions affecting 
the Tone and Strength of the Voice. 

365. The Function of Respiration has for its immedi- 
ate object the purification of the blood, and for its ultimate 
uses the production of heat, motion and nervous energy. The 
blood which becomes impure in the systemic capillaries is 
carried to the pulmonary capillaries, which everywhere sur- 
round the air-cells. Through the thin walls the poisonous 
carbonic acid passes from the capillaries into the air-cells, 
and is expelled from the body ; at the sam^ time the oxygen 
of the external air passes from the air-cells into the capilla- 
ries, and the blood is changed from a dark maroon to a 
bright red color. 

The chemical changes in every part of the body caused by 
the union of this oxygen with carbon, hydrogen and other 
elements of the blood and tissues, maintain the temperature 
of the body and are the source of its nervous power and elec- 
tricity. 

366. Respiration consists of two acts, taking air into the 



THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 



177 



lungs or insjnration, and expelling air from the lungs or ex- 
piration. An act of Inspiration is effected by the enlarge- 
ment of the chest, which is done by elevating the ribs and 
sternum and depressing the convex surface of the diaphragm. 
To elevate the ribs two sets of muscles are used. Those which 



Fig. 126. 




Fig. 125. A Front View of the Chest and Abdomen in Respiration. — ^1, 1, The position 
of the walls of the chest in inspiration. 2, 2, 2, The position of the diaphragm in inspira- 
tion. 3, 3, Tlie position of the walls of the chest in expiration. 4, 4, 4. The position of 
the diaphragm in expiration. 5, 5, The position of the walls of the abdomen in inspira- 
tion. 6, 6, The position of the abdominal walls in expiration. 

Fig. 126. A Side View of the Chest and Abdomen in Respiration. — 1, The cavitj' of 
the chest. 2, The cavity of the abdomen. 3, The line of direction for the diaphragm 
when relaxed in expiration. 4, The line of direction for the diaphragm when contracted 
in inspiration. 5, 6, The position of the front walls of the chest and abdomen in inspira- 
tion. 7, 8, The position of the front walls of the abdomen and chest in expiration. 

are attached to the upper rib and sternum contract and ele- 
vate the anterior extremities of the ribs; this enlarges the 
cavity between the spinal column and the sternum. The 
central portion of the ribs is raised by the intercostal mus- 
cles. The second rib is elevated by the contraction of the 



178 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

muscles between it and the first ; the third rib is raised by 
the combined action of the muscles between the first and sec- 
ond and between the second and third. The motion of each 
succeeding rib is increased in the same way, so that the move- 
ment of the twelfth rib is very free, as it is elevated by the 
contraction of eleven sets of intercostal muscles. Simultane- 
ously with the elevation of the ribs the central portion of the 
diaphragm is depressed by the contraction of its muscular 
margin and the relaxation of the muscular walls of the abdo- 
men. By these combined movemervts the chest is enlarged 
in every direction. This enlargement of the thorax tends to 
produce a vacuum between the thoracic walls and the lungs ; 
hence, the pressure of the external air fills the air-cells, for- 
cing the elastic lungs to expand and fill the cavity. The elas- 
tic walls of the air-cells yield in every direction ; so also do 
the surrounding areolar tissue and the pleura. The air-tul)es 
yield both in a circular and a longitudinal direction. In dif- 
ficult respiration almost every muscle in the body is made in 
some way subservient to the distension of the chest. (Figs. 
125, 126.) 

367. In Expiration the movements are of a more passive 
character, depending mainly on the relaxation of the inspira- 
tory muscles and the elastic resilience"^ of the tissues con- 
cerned. When the muscles relax, the sternum and ribs de- 
scend, the diaphragm vaults upward, the elastic walls of the 
air-cells diminish their size, the longitudinal and circular 
fibres of the bronchi and bronchise shorten and narrow their 
tubes, and the entire elastic lungs rebound like an extended 
spring let loose, while the interlobular and sub-pleural tissues 
aid powerfully in compressing them on all sides. 

368. When respiration is performed chiefly by the dia- 
phragm, it is called abdominal respiration ; when chiefly by 
the action of the ribs, pectoral respiration. The former is 
the characteristic mode in men and children ; the latter, in 



* Lat., re, back, and salio, to spring. 




THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 179 

369. The ordinary respiratory movements alone would not 
renovate the air in the smaller air-tubes and air-cells. Ad- 
ditional aid is rendered in two w^ays : 1st, By the diffusion 0/ 
gases, causing the carbonic acid and the oxygen to mix 
equally in all parts of the lungs ; and 2d, By the ejoithelial 
air-current. In the lining mucous membrane of the trachea 
and the bronchial tubes, the cilia of the epithelium are always 
directed from below upward, and, like all ciliary motion, it 
has the effect of producing a current in the fluids of the 

mucous membrane. 

Fig. 127. 
Now, the air in the 

tubes must move to a 

certain extent with 

this current ; hence a 

double stream of air 

is established in each 

bronchial tube, one 

current passing from ^j^ 127. diagram of a small bronchial tube, 

within outward, along showing outward and inward current, produced by 

the walls of the tube, ^^ ^'''^^ °^° "'"■ 

the other passing from without inward, along the central 
part. Thus a kind of aerial circulation is maintained, wdiich, 
together with the mutual diffusion of the gases and the ordi- 
nary respiratory movements, ensures a complete renovation of 
the air in all portions of the pulmonary cavity. (Fig. 127.) 

370. The amount of air taken in and given out in a re- 
spiratory movement must vary with different individuals and 
different conditions of the system. The volume of air ordi- 
narily received by the lungs in a single inspiration is about 
one pint; the volume expelled, a little less than a pint. In 
the mutual action that takes place betw^een the air and the 
blood every twenty-four hours, the air loses about thirty- 
seven ounces of oxygen, and the body fourteen ounces of 
carbon. 

Ohsiervation 1. — Respiration is more frequent in women and chil- 
dren than in men. Persons of small stature breathe more frequently 
but less deeply than taller people. In health, the smallest number of 



180 AliTATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

respirations in a minute by an adult is not less than fourteen, and they 
rarely exceed twenty-five; eighteen may' be considered the average 
number. The number of respirations is increased by exercise, food, 
stimulants and moderate cold, wiiile it is diminished by inactivity, 
moderate heat, starvation and general weakening influences, especially 
mental depression. 

2. — The actions of sighing, yawning, sobbing, laughing, coughing and 
sneezing are simple modifications of the ordinary movements of respira- 
tion, excited either by mental emotions or by a stimulus arising in the 
respiratory organs themselves. Sighing and yawning often occur as 
simple results of deficient aeration ; sometimes the former results from 
depression of the feelings ; the latter from mere imitation. Laughter 
and weeping seem to be always either expressions of the emotions or 
simple results of sensations. Coughing and sneezing are occasioned by 
irritation in the air-passages, and the sudden expiratory movement has 
a tendency to remove all intruding substances. 

371. The Larynx performs a double function, one part 
being concerned with respiration, the other with the voice. 

In inspiration the vocal cords separate, allowing the air 
to pass in freely ; in expiration they relax. The former 
movement is active ; the latter, passive. Both co-operate . 
with the other respiratory movements. Vocal sounds are 
further modified by the elevation and depression of the 
larynx, for when the voice is raised from a low to a high 
pitch the whole larynx is elevated toward the base of the 
skull, drawing with it the trachea ; the vocal tube is thus 
slightly lengthened, the diameter of the trachea lessened, 
and variations are produced in the tension of its walls, en- 
abling it to accommodate itself to the different vocal tones. 
The larynx, however, is the special organ of the voice, 
sounds being produced by the vibratory action of the vocal 
cords. During ordinary, tranquil breathing, the cords are 
widely separated, the glottis being of triangular shape ; but 
when a vocal sound is to be produced, the arytenoid cartilages 
are said to become erect and almost to touch each other, the 
cords are made suddenly tense, closing the posterior portion 
of tiie glottis, while the anterior two-thirds opens a very fine 
fissure, and the air, driven by an unusually forcible expira- 
tion through the narrow opening in passing between the 



THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCxVL ORGANS. 181 

vibrating vocal cords, is' itself thrown into vibrations which 
produce the sound required. 

Observation 1. — The extreme sensibility of the vocal cords and the 
posterior part of the epiglottis causes them to throw off any foreign 
substances happening to come in contact with them, by a sudden, ex- 
pulsive cough. 

2. — The vibrations of the vocal cords take place according to the laws 
which regulate the action of the stretched membranous tongues or reeds 
in reed instruments. If one extremity of a short tube be covered by 
two portions of elastic membrane, leaving a small chink between them, 
a form of double membranous tongue is obtained, which resembles the 
vocal cords in man. The narrower the chink, the more easily are 
the sounds produced. The size, however, in no way affects the pitchy 
which is somewhat determined by the length, tension and thickness of 
the tongues, but chiefly by the tension. 

3. — The tones of different individuals are doubtless modified by the 
shape and size of the vocal apparatus. Thus, a large larynx usually 
gives a deep-toned voice ; a smaller one gives a comparatively high 
pitch. The difference in the tone of the male and female voice is due 
largely to the great difference in the walls of the larynx. In the female 
the cavity is smaller, the angle in front less acute, and the cartilage 
softer. 

4. — The general strength of the voice depends upon the capacity of the 
chest, the development of the muscles used in vocalization, the extent to 
Avhich the vocal cords can vibrate, and the power of communicating 
resonance possessed by the air-passages and neighboring cavities. 



^ 41. Hygiene of the Eespiratory and Vocal Organs. — Im- 
portance of Proper Respiration. Effect of Carbonic Acid Gas upon 
Respiration and Combustion. Sources of this Gas. Location of Dwell- 
ings. Danger of Impure Air within the House. Importance of Venti- 
lation in Public Buildings — In Sleeping-rooms — In Sick-rooms. Means 
of securing Warm and Pure Air in Winter. Importance of Moisture 
in the Air. Effect of Compressing the Respiratory Organs. Means of 
Enlarging the Chest. Influence of the Nervous System upon Respira- 
tion. 

372. In the circulating system we have seen the nainutest 
care manifested in supplying each organ, tissue and cell with 
blood. If tlie blood be pure, this is the best conceivable 
arrangement for securing health and vitality ; if impure, the 

16 



182 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

means is equally effective for poisoning every part of the 
system. 

373. Pure blood can be obtained only by a healthy action 
of the respiratory organs, and this action only by a constant 
and sufficient supply of pure air. Limit this supply, and the 
stimulus furnished to the nervous and muscular tissues is 
withdrawn, and the carbonic acid is retained in the blood. 
Hence, the brain works sluggishly, the muscles become inac- 
tive, the heart acts imperfectly, the secretions are deteriorated, 
the food is not properly assimilated, and the whole body be- 
comes weak. 

374. Pure air is composed of oxygen and nitrogen in about 
the proportion of 21 to 79. The air is most frequently ren- 
dered unfit for vital purposes by the presence of carbonic 
acid gas and volatile particles of corrupted animal matter. 

Observation 1. — The sources of this deleterious gas are mainly decay- 
ing animal and vegetable matter, combustion and the respiration of 
animals. Plants in their healthy state take up carbonic acid gas and 
give out oxygen, thus maintaining, under ordinary circumstances, a 
pure and respirable atmosphere. Carbonic acid gas will not support 
combustion, as may be seen by introducing into it a burning taper, 
which is as readily extinguished as if dipped in water. Neither will 
it support life ; if a small animal be placed in ajar of the gas, life soon 
becomes extinct. 

2. — In wells, mines and caves, where the circulation is obstructed, this 
gas often accumulates in quantities sufficient to cause death to those who 
enter. Hence, before entering them, the air should be tested by a lighted 
taper. If it will not burn, respiration cannot be maintained. 

375. The location of dwelling-houses should be chosen with 
reference to free circulation of air and the avoidance of marshes, 
stagnant pools, slaughter-houses and other sources of vegetable 
and animal decay. Careful attention should also be given to 
the drainage of a house, and to the cellar. These underground 
store-rooms should always be well ventilated, and all vegeta- 
bles removed from them in early spring. A little neglect in 
these and like respects has not unfrequently prostrated a 
whole family with typhoid disease. 

Observation. — The chief danger, however, is mithin the house proper, 



THE EESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 183 

and from the breaths of its inmates. Unless ventilation receives proper 
attention, the carbonic acid gas from the lungs and the effete particles 
of animal matter thrown off from the system will soon render the air 
poisonous. 

376. School-rooms, churches, concert-halls, and all rooms de- 
signed for public purposes should he amply ventilated. The 
child at school becomes listless and uninterested ; why? Be- 
cause he is stupefied by foid air. When a pupil continues to 
breathe such air month after month, his brain is injured, and 
often consumption or other fatal disease destroys his young 
life, and then we wonder at the "mysterious providence" 
that takes from us the gifted and beautiful. 

Observation 1. — The good man at church feels that he ought to be in- 
terested in the services, and yet, powerless to fix his attention, he sits 
nodding; why? Because he is stupefied by foul air. The air breathed 
over and over again last Sabbath and shut in during the week is all the 
poor man can obtain. 

2. — The lamps of the concert-hall burn dimly long before the closing 
hour; why? Because they are bedimmed by the foul air; and just in 
proportion to the decrease of light is the increase of dullness in the 
audience. 

377. The sleeping-room should be thoroughly ventilated. 
Proper ventilation would often prevent morning headaches, 
want of appetite and general languor so common among the 
feeble. The impure air of sleeping-rooms probably causes 
more deaths than intemperance. Those who live in open 
houses little superior to the sheds that shelter the farmer's 
flocks are usually the most healthy and robust; headaches, 
liver complaints, coughs and a multitude of nervous affec- 
tions are almost unknown to them. Not so with those who 
spend their days and nights in rooms with double or caulked 
windows, breathing over and over again the confined air; 
disease and suffering are their constant companions. 

Observation 1. — By many a sleeping apartment twelve feet square and 
seven feet high is considered spacious for two persons and "good ac- 
commodation" for four. This room contains one thousand and eight 
cubic feet of air. Allowing ten cubic feet to each person per minute, 
two occupants would vitiate the air in fifty minutes and four in twenty- 
five minutes. 



J 84 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

2. — Among children convulsions or fits often occur when they are 
sleeping, and not nnfrequently in consequence of impure air. In such 
cases, by carrying the sufferer into the open air relief is afforded. Chil- 
dren shouhi not sleep in low beds while adult persons occupy a higher 
bed in the same unventilated room, as carbonic acid is most abundant 
near the floor; nor is it advisable that the young sleep witii the sick or 
aged. 

378. The ventilation of the siek-room should receive special 
attention. It is no unusual practice when the patient is suf- 
fering from acute disease for the attendants to prevent the 
ingress of pure air, simply from the apprehension that the 
sick person will take cold ; and caution is indeed necessary : 
the patient should not feel the current. No room is suitable 
for sickness that is not so arranged that pure air may be con- 
stantly admitted without inconvenience or injury to the pa- 
tient ; and here we would say that cool air should not be mis- 
taken for jmre air. A very little sound judgment in this 
matter would doubtless save much suffering and lengthen life 
in a multitude of cases. The custom of having several persons 
sit in the sick-room vitiates the air and delays the recovery 
of the patient. 

379. The great means of ventilation in summer are open win- 
dows and doors. Motion is at that season the great deside- 
ratum. On a hot summer's day we go into a cool room that 
has been shut up, and at first it is grateful, but in a short 
time the cool, stagnant air becomes oppressive, and we select 
the open window with its circulation of air, even if it is a 
little warmer. Windows should be made to lower from the 
top. 

380. In winter, ventilation may he obtained by properly-con- 
structed fines. As cold weather approaches we must close the 
windows, excepting when in bed, but good flues secure a good 
circulation of air. 

Observation 1. — For heating a small room, where the occupants may 
change position at pleasure, an open fire is the healthiest known means, 
for the air cannot become stagnant, as the fire is continually drawing a 
considerable amount from the room to support combustion, the place 
of which is supplied by other air. Just here comes in the greatest in- 



THE RESPIEATOEY AXD VOCAL OEGAXS. 185 

convenience of the open fire: if the cold air conaes in at the cracks of a 
door or window on the opposite side of the room, it will flow across to 
the fire, chilling the feet and backs of those sitting in its track. 

2. — A stove is a very economical mode of heating ordinary sitting- 
rooms, ofiices, etc. ; but there should be an air-chamber or box on or 
near the top of the stove, and communicating with this should be a 
pipe for introducing fresh air from the external atmosphere. If this 
supply of fresh air is abundant, with a constant evaporation of moisture, 
and an opening into a heated flue near the ceiling, to be opened when 
the room is overheated or the lights are burning in the evening and 
kept closed at other times, with another opening into a heated flue on 
a level with the floor, which should be always open, to carry off the cold, 
heavy, foul air from the floor, — if a stove be thus arranged for many 
small, isolated rooms, it is one of the most economical, comfortable and 
wholesome means of heating at our command. 

3. — "Probably one of the very best arrangements is to have a good 
steam furnace, with a large fresh-air box, letting in an abundance of air 
moderately warmed and overflowing the house with this, also to have 
some direct radiation in the halls, and a bright, cheerful, open fire in 
the family sitting-room." Two things are indispensable in every fur- 
nace — a large fresh-air box communicating Avith the external atmosphere, 
and a large evaporating vessel. Few persons realize the necessity of 
supplying a proper amount of moisture in our stove and furnace-heated 
rooms. If it is not furnished by other means, the heated air will have 
it from the natural moisture of the skin and lungs, thus producing a 
dry, parched, feverish condition of the system. 

381. The conditions of proper respiration require not only 
that the air he pure, hut sufficient in quantity; hence the chest 
and lungs must not he reduced in size. lu children who have 
never worn close garments, the circumference of the chest is 
generally about equal to that of the body at the hips ; and 
similar proportions would exist through life if there were no 
improper pressure of the clothing. Such is the case with the 
Indian woman, whose blanket allows the free expansion of 
the chest. The symmetrical statues of ancient sculpture bear 
little resemblance to the "beau ideal" of American notions 
of elegant form. 

Observation.— The Chinese, by compressing the feet of female chil- 
dren, prevent their growth, so that the foot of a Chinese belle is not 
larger than the foot of an American girl of five years ; the American 
16« 



186 



anato:my, physiology and hygiene. 



women compress their chests, so that the chest of an American belle is not 
larger than the chest of a Chinese girl of five years. In these respects, 
which country exhibits the greater intelligence ? 

382. Individuals may have small chests from hirth, this being, 
to the particular individual, natural. That like produces 
like is a general law. If the mother has a small, tapering 
waist, either hereditary or acquired, the form may be im- 
pressed on her offspring, thus illustrating the truthfulness of 
Scripture, which declares that the sins of the parent shall 

Fig. 128. Fig. 129. 




Fig. 128. A Correct Outline of the Venus de Medici, the beau ideal of female 
symmetry. 

Fig. 129. An Outline of a Wfxl-Corseted Modern Beauty. 

One has an artificial, insect waist; the other, a natural waist. One has sloping shoul- 
ders, while the shoulders of the other are comparatively elevated, square and angular. 
The proportion of the corseted female below the waist is also a departure from the sym- 
metry of nature. 

be visited upon the children unto the third and fourth 
generations. (Figs. 37, 129.) 

Observation 1. — The question is often asked, Can the size of the chest 
and the volume of the lungs be increased when they have been once 
compressed ? Yes. The means to be used are, a full inflation of the 
lungs at each act of respiration, and a judicious exercise of them by 



THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 187 

walking in the open air, reading aloud, singing, sitting erect and prac- 
ticing appropriate gymnastic exercises. Unless these exercises are 
systematic and persistent, they will not aflbrd the beneficial results 
desired. 

2. — Persons of sedentary habits should often, during the day, take full, 
deep breaths, filling the smallest air-cells with air ; the shoulders should 
be thrown back and the head held erect. 

383. Respiration is much influenced by the condition of the 
nervous system. Abstract thought, anxiety and the depress- 
ing passions diminish the contractile energy of the diaphragm 
and the muscles that elevate the ribs, thus preventing the 
full inflation of the lungs. Cheerfulness, joy and all the ex- 
hilarating emotions favor free respiration, and consequently 
promote health. 

§ 42. Comparative Pneumonology. — Respiratory Apparatus of Mam- 
mals — Of Birds — Of Reptiles — Of Amphibians — Of Fishes. 

384. The Kespiratory Apparatus in other Mammals is 
similar to that of man both in structure and function. There 
are similar arrangements and movements of the ribs, sternum, 
intercostal muscles and diaphragm. The lungs fill the cavity 
of the thorax, and have the same general composition of 
lobes, lobules and air-cells. 

385. In Birds the lungs are confined to the back wall of 
the chest. They are not separated into lobes, but are oblong 
and flattened in shape, and connected with a series of air- 
receptacles scattered through various parts of the body. In 
birds the larynx, trachea, bronchia, pulmonary arteries, veins 
and capillaries are much modified. The ultimate pulmonary 
capillaries do not form a network lining definitely-bounded 
air-cells, as in mammals, but each vessel crosses an open air- 
space of its own. They interlace in every direction, forming 
a mass of capillaries permeated everywhere by air. (B, fig. 
132.) This arrangement not only reduces the specific grav- 
ity of the body, but also assists largely in the aeration of the 
blood. A marked modification of the respiration of birds of 
flight is the connection of the pores of the bones and feathers 
with the bronchial tubes and air-spaces of the lungs, so that 



n 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



there is an interchange of air between the lungs, the bones 
and the investing plumage. Birds consume more air in a 
given time, proportionally, than any other vertebrate, and 
they soonest die when deprived of it. 

386. In Reptiles 
respiration is more 
simple than in 
mammals or birds. 
The lungs are less 
lobular and more 
bag-like, extend- 
ing into the ab- 
dominal cavity. 
Upon the walls of 
these sac-like lungs 
the pulmonary ves- 
sels ramify. Ow- 
ing to a less ener- 
getic respiration, 
the movements of 
Reptiles are not so 
well sustained. 

387. The Am- 
phibians when 
young (tadpoles) 
breathe by gills ; 
before becoming 
adult they acquire 
lungs, but the res- 
piration is comparatively inactive. In Frogs the thorax is 
not so formed as to act like a suction-pump, and accordingly 
these animals swallow the air by a sort of deglutition. 

388. In Fishes respiration is performed by means of the air 
dissolved in the water. Instead of lobular or bag-like lungs, 
there are found only a series of slit-like openings or arches on 
each side near the head, called the branchiae or gills. The 
bony and cartilaginous frames of these arches on the convex 




THE RESPIEATOEY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 189 




Fig. 131 (Oiven). The Right LrxG of a Goose.— 1, A bronchus wbich di>ddes into two 
tules that open into the abdominal air-receptacles at 2, 2. 

Pig. 132 (Owen). Ideal Section of a Bird, Magmfied Two Hundred axd Sixtt times. — 
1. A primary bronchus dividing into secondary bronchi that end in cfeca. 2, 2. 2, 2, 2. 2. 
Th'se secondary bronchi give oflF smaller pennifoi'in brandies that ramify among the 
lobules. B, A plexus of capillary vessels. 

Fig. 133. Fig. 134. 





Fig 133 {OiLtm) Tongce, Lar\xx and Lungs of a Frog. — 1, 2, Lungrs. 3. 4. Larynx. 
Fn. 134 (Oi/)^n; 11 !• art \nd Lungs of a Fkog.—1, Heart. 2, Arch of the aorta'. 3,c 
Pulmouary arterj 4, 4, Pulmonary veins. 5, 5, Aorta. 6, Vena cava. 



190 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



side support processes. On these are mauy plates or leaflets, 
covered by a delicate tessellated membrane or epithelium, on 
which the microscopic capillary blood-vessels ramify. By 
this arrangement of extensive epithelial surface, the blood- 
particles are more minutely separated and acted upon by the 





Fig. 135 (Owen). Section of a Branchial Arch, with a pair of processes supporting 
leaflets or plates from a cod, magnified two hundred and sixty diameters. — 1, A section 
of a branchial arch. 2, A pair of processes. 3, Branchial leaflets or plates. The num- 
l)pr of leaflets in one process of the cod is about one thousand; In the salmon, fourteen 
hundred; in the sturgeon, sixteen hundred. 

Fig. 136 (Owen). A Circulation of the Blood through the Branchial Leaflets (a dia- 
gram). — 1, A section of a branchial arch. 2, A section of a branchial artery. 3, An 
artery sent along the outer margin of the processes, giving off capillary vessels to the 
leaflets. 4, A vein that receives the blood from the capillaries on the inner margin of 
the process after the respiratory change has been effected and returns it to the branchial 
vein (5). 

air in the water. In breathing, the mouth and gills of a fish 
open alternately ; the water entering the mouth escapes by the 
openings of the gills. (Figs. 135, 136.) A remarkable feature 
in the organization of some fish is the swimming or air-blad- 
der, placed in the abdomen under the dorsal spine, commu- 



THE EESPIKATOEY AND VOCAL OEGANS. 



191 



nicating often with the oesophagus or stomach by a canal, 
permitting the escape of air from its interior. By a move- 
ment of the ribs the air-receptacle is 
acted on, so that by diminishing the ^^^* ^•^''• 

quantity of air the specific gravity 
of the fish alters according to circum- 
stances. Fish that swim near the bot- 
tom have no air-bladder, as the Eel 
and Turbot. (Fig. 82.) 

389. In some species of the Annu- 
losa, as certain Spiders, the respira- 
tion is eflTected by air-bearing tubes 
(tracheae), which communicate with 
the exterior by small apertures called 
Stig'mata. These openings often have 
valves which open and shut like the 
folding of a door. Through the air- 
bearing tubes the function of respi- 
ration is performed in every part of 
the body. This mode of breathing 
is peculiar to insects. 

390. In the Mollusca the respira- 
tory organs vary. Some have the 
form of lungs, but in a state of great simplicity, like the Land- 
snail, while a large class have leaf-like gills, constituting what 
is known in the Oyster as the *' beard." 




Fig. 137. The Respiratory Or- 
gans OF THE Nepa (Water Scor- 
pion).—!, The head. 2, Base of 
the feet of the first pair. 3, First 
ring of the thorax. 4, Base of 
•wings. 5, Base of the feet of the 
second pair. 6, Stigmata. 7, Tra- 
cheae. 8, Aerial vesicles. 



192 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 
Ohaptee X. — The Respiratory and Vocal Organs. 
§ 37. Anatomy of the Respiratory and Vocal Organs. — 348. Of what do the Respira- 
tory and Vocal organs cousist? 349. Describe the Larj'nx. Of what is it composed? 
What is said of the Thyroid cartilage? Of the Cricoid ? Of the Arytenoid ? Of the Epi- 
glottis? 350. What is the Trachea? 351. Give the divisions and subdivisions of the 
Bronchi. 352. Of how many divisions do the Lungs consist, and where situated? Of 
what form are they? What is the Pleura? Compare the Lungs. 

^3 8. Histology of the Respiratory and Vocal Organs. — 353. What is said of the struc- 
ture of the Larynx? Describe the Vocal cords. 354. Of what is the Trachea made up? 
Speak of each part. 355. Distinguish between the Bronchi and Trachea. 356. How 
are the Lungs constructed ? In what way are tlie air-cells connected together? Obser- 
vation. 357. Describe the Pleura. 

§ 39. Chemistry of tite, Rcitpiratory and Vocal Organs. — 358. Of what does Respiration 
consist? 359. State the sources of carbonic acid. 360. Give the proportions of oxygen 
and carbonic acid in the arterial and venous blood. 361. State the physical process by 
which an exchange of oxygen and carbonic acid in the capillaries is effected ; also the 
chemical process. 362. In what respect does expired air differ from that inspired ? 363. 
What is tlie source of animal heat? Of what temperature the tissues and blood? 

§ 4:0. Physiology of the Respiratory and Vocal Organs.— ZQi. What are the objects 
of Respiration ? What are the results of the chemical changes? 365. Of what acts does 
respiration consist? How is inspiration effected? 366. What is said of the movements 
in expiration? 367. Define abdominal and pectoral respiration. 368. How is the air in 
the air-cells renovated? 369. Compare air inspired with that expired. Observations. 
370. What is the office of the Larynx in respiration? Of what is the Larynx the special 
organ ? Observations. 

§41. Hygiene of the Respiratory and Vocal Organs. — 371. In the Circulatorj' sj'stem, 
what have we seen manifested? 372. Why must there be a constant and sufficient sup- 
ply of pure air ? 373. What is the composition of air? Observations. 374. What regard 
should be had for the surroundings of our dwelling-houses? Observation. 375. What 
remarks as to the necessity of ventilation of school-rooms, churches and concert-halls? 
Observations. 376. What is said of the ventilation of sleeping-rooms? Observations. 
377. What attention should be paid to the sick-room ? 378. Speak of the nuans of venti- 
lation in summer. 379. What means in winter? Observations. 380. Wliat besides purity 
of air is required for proper respiration ? Observation. 381. What ellVot has compression 
of the mother's chest on her offspring? Observations. 382. By wliat is respiration much 
influenced? 

§ 4:3. Comparative rnnimnnology. — 383. IIow does the Respiratory apparatus in other 
mammals compare with that in man? 384. Descx'ibe the Lunns of Bi^-ds. Wliat is said 
of the Ultimate Pulmonary Capillaries? What marked modification of respiration in 
birds of flight? 385. Speak of respiration in Reptiles. 386. In Amphibians. 387. In 
Fishes. What remarkable feature in the organization of some fish? 383. Speak of re- 
spiration in some species of the Annulosa. 389. In Mollusca. 



THE EESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 193 

UNIFIC REVIEW. 

[Compare 849-357 with 384-390.] 
Compare each respiratory organ in man with that iu the lower classes of 
animals. 

[Compare 354-356 with 17-19 and 21.] 

Name the tissues found in the organs of respiration. How disposed? 

[Compare 357 with 19, 30, 31 and 318.] 
What tissue in the lungs? Describe the variety of epithelium found in 
the organs of respiration, and name those organs. 

[Compare 358 with 33.] 
What membrane forms the pleura ? What is said of it and its secretion ? 

[Compare 359-363 with 38, 39, 43 and 63-65.] 
Give the chemical changes which occur during respiration. 

[Compare 364 and 365 with 168, 171 and 172.] 
What chemical actions produce heat? State the influence of respiration 
on motion. 

[Compare 381 and 382 with 189.] 

Of what advantage is exercise of the lungs? What is necessary after 
exercise ? 

[Compare 383 with 194, 196, 439, 445, 448 and 449.] 
What relation is there between respiration and mental energy? What 
caution is given ? 

17 I 



194 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

Fig. 139. 
Fie. 138. 




Fig. 138. The Lungs.— 3, 3, 3, The lobes of the right lung. 4, 4, Tlie lobes of the left 
lung. 5, 6, 7, The heart. 9, 10, 11, The large blood-vessels. 12, The trachea. 15, 15, 15, 
The diaphragm. 

Fig. 139. The Bronchi^.— 1, Outline of right lung. 2, Outline of left lung. 3, 4, 
Larynx and trachea. 5, 6, 7, 8, Bronchial tubes. 9, 9, Air-cells. 



Fig. 140. 



Fis, 141. 




Fig. 140. An Ideal View or the Pulmonic Cikculation. — 1, 1, The right lung. 2, 2, 
The left lung. 3, The trachea. 4, The right bronchial tube. 5, The left bronchial tube, 
6, 6, 6, 6, Air-cells. 7, The right auricle. 8, The right ventricle. 9, The tricuspid 
valves. 10, The pulmonic artery. 11, The branch to the right lung. 12, The branch 
to the left lung, 13, The right pulmonic vein. 14, The left pulmonic vein, 15, The left 
auricle. 16, The left ventricle. 17, I'be mitral valves. 

Fig. 141. The Respiratort Organs of the Nepa (Water Scorpion). — 1, The head. 
2, Base of the feet of the iirst pair. 3, First ring of the thorax. 4, Base of wings. 5, 
Base of the feet of the second pair, 6, Stigmata. 7, Tracheae. 8, Aerial vesklea. 



THE EESPIEATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 



195 



SYNTHETIC TOPICAL REVIEW. 



Larynx, 






" its parts, 
Trachea, 


?37. 




Bronchi, 


Anatomy of. 




Lungs. 






Larynx, 






Vocal Cords, 






Ti-achea, 


^38. 




Bronchi, 


Histology of. 




Lungs, 






Pleura. 






Respiration, 






Carbonic Acid, 


^39. 




Excliange of Oxygen and Carbonic Acid, 




Expired and inspired air. 


Cliemistry of. 




Animal heat. , 






Respiration, object of 






" modes of 






Renovation of air in air-cells. 






Amount of air in respiration, 






Number of respirations. 


HO. 




Modifications of respiratory movements. 


Physiology of. 




Larynx, double function of 




Chap. X. 


Vibration of the Vocal Cords, 




. The Respiratory 


Conditions affecting tones. 




and Vocal 
Organs. 


" " strength of voice. 






Circulatory System, care manifested in 






Pure blood, how obtained. 






Carbonic Acid, its influence. 






" its sources, 






Dwelling-houses, location, 






" impure air in 






Public Buildings, ventilation, 


_ HI. 




Sleeping-rooms, " 


Hygiejic of. 




Sick-rooms, " 






Pure air and warmth, how obtained, 






Importance of moisture. 






Compression of respiratory organs. 






Enlargement of the chest, 






Influence of nervous system. 






Mammalia, Respiratory Organs of 






Birds, " " 






Reptiles, " " 


H2. 




Amphibians, " " 




Fishes, " " 


Comparative 




Annulosa, " " 


Pneumonology. 




MoUusca. " " 







Give the Anatomy, the Histology, the Chemistry, the Physiology 
and the Hygiene, Human and Comparative, of the Organs of Respira- 
tion. 



196 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOnV AND PIYGIENE. 

Fig. 1 i2. 

B 




Fig. 142. A Representation of the Brain, Spina l Cord and Spinal Nerves.- 
1, The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum. 3. 3, Spinal cord. 4, The sciatic nerve. 
' A. Distribution of the Olfactory Nerve.— 1, 2, Nerve of smell. 

B. Optic Nerve.— 15, The nerve of vision. 

C. The Gustatory Nerve.— 1, 2, 3, 4, Branches of the nerve of taste. 

D. Auditorv Nerve.— 13, Nerve of hearing. 



DIVISION IV. 

SENSORIAL APPAEATUS. 

o91. In the two preceding Divisions, the tissues and organs 
directly involved in the movements of the body, and those 
most intimately connected with the preparation and assimila- 
tion of nutrient material, have been briefly described. In 
the present Division we consider the organs through which 
is manifested the subtle power that controls these motions 
and processes, establishes telegraphic communication between 
the several parts of the body and brings it into important 
relations with the external world. These, taken collectively, 
we name the Sensorial Apparatus. 



CHAPTER XI. 

NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



I 43. Anatomy of the Nervous System. — Two Forms of Nervous 
Tissue. Classification of the Ganglia, Nerves and Commissures. Spinal 
Cord. Medulla Oblongata. Peduncles of the Cerebellum — Of the Cere- 
brum. Corpora Striata. Optici Thalami. Corpora Quadrigennina. 
Corpus Callosum. Ventncles. Hemispheres of the Cerebrum. Con- 
volutions of the Cerebrum and Cerebellum. Classification of CerebrO' 
Spinal Nerves — Of Cranial Nerves — Spinal Nerves. Sympathetic SyS' 
tern. Distribution of Sympathetic Nerves, 

392. Nervous Tissue presents two formal characters — 
one, cell-like and gray in color ; the other, fibrous and white. 
The former is arranged in masses called Centres or Ganglia^ 
being the originating, active centres of nerve-force ; the latter, 
in threads, which are simple conductors of nerve-force, and 
17 » 197 



198 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



are named Nerves when they connect the ganglia with the 
various parts of the body, and Commissures when they con- 
nect the ganglia with each other. 

393. For convenience in study, the numerous Ganglia, 
Nerves and Commissures may be arranged in two great and 
closely-connected systems — the Cerebro-Spinal and the Sym- 
patJietic, the Cerebro-Spinal system including the series of 
ganglia within the skiill and spinal column, their nerves, 
commissures and the lesser ganglia in the nerve-tracts ; the 
Sympathetic system including the long chain of ganglia lying 
in front of the spinal column, their nerves, commissures and 
additional ganglia found chiefly in the abdominal cavity. 
(Figs. 151, 152.) 

394. The Cerebro-Spinal Axis commences with that por- 
tion of nervous matter which lies within the spinal column, 
extending from the second lumbar vertebra to the base of the 
skull, and known as the Spinal Cord. It contains within 
itself the filaments of all the nerves of the external parts of 
the trunk and limbs. It is soft, and white externally, but 
grayish within, forming the longest ganglion in the system. 

^^^ ^^.^ The cord is nearly 

cylindrical and 
double, the two 
halves connected by 
a narrow commis- 
sure or bridge of the 
same substance as 
the cord, having 
within, through the 
entire length, a mi- 
nute central canal. 
(Fig. 143.) On each 
half are two slight 
longitudinal lines, 
serving to distinguish it into Anterior, Lateral and Posterior 
columns. As it enters the cavity of the skull, the cord be- 
comes enlarged and receives the name of Medul'la Oblongata. 




Fig. 143. TRANSVhBSE Skc:ion of Spinal Cor.'.— 1, 2, 
Spinal nerves of right and left sides, showing their two 
roots. 4, Origin of anterior root. 3, Origin of posterior 
root. 5, Ganglion of posterior root. 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



199 




This enlargement is due to the presence of an important 
ganglion imbedded within, named the Ganglion of the Medulla 
Oblongata, and also to the accession of the fibres of most of 
the cranial nerves. In each of the lateral halves of the 
medulla oblongata may be seen four principal bundles of 
nerve-fibres, ranging backward from the middle line in front 
as follows: I'&t, Anterior Pyramids ; 2d, 
the Olivary Bodies; 3d, the Restiform 
Bodies; and 4th, the Posterior Pyra- 
mids. These bodies are continuous 
with their corresponding portions of 
the columns of the spinal cord. Many 
of the fibres of the anterior pyramids 
cross each other, bringing each side of 
the column into communication with 
the opposite side of the brain; this 
crossing forms the Decussation of the 
Anterior Pyramids. (Fig. 144.) Some 
of the fibres of the posterior pyramids 
also cross a little above. By the di- 
vergence of the restiform and posterior 
pyramidal bodies, a somewhat broad 
cavity Is left, which may be considered a 
widening of the central canal, and which 
receives the name of the Fourth Ventricle. (Figs. 145, 146.) 
395. Overshadowing this ventricle is a mass of nerve- 
substance, called the Cerebel'lum or little brain, which is also 
double, consisting of two hemispheres. Each hemisphere, 
from its inner surface, sends out a multitude of fibres, which 
pass downward and forward toward the centre, unite into 
flattened bundles, emerge from the hemisphere, sweep across 
the base of the brain, pass up to the other hemisphere and 
spread out over its internal surface, thus originating in one 
hemisphere and terminating in the other. The two sets of 
fibres cross in front of the Medulla Oblongata, in the middle 
line of the base of the cerebellum, forming the bridge of the 
Cerebellum, or the Pons Varo'lii. (Figs. 144, 146.) 



Fig. 144 (Dalton). Medulla. 
Oblongata, of Human Brain, 
anterior view. 1, 1, Anterior 
pyramids. 2, 2, Olivary bodies. 
3, 3, Restiform bodies. 4, De- 
cussation of the anterior col- 
umns. The medulla oblongata 
is seen terminated above by the 
transverse fibres of the Pons 
Varolii. 



200 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, 



At the pons, the medulla oblongata sends off from the 
restiform bodies bundles of fibres called the Injerior Peduncles 
of the Cerehellmn. Passing under and among the fibres of the 
pons and imbedding the Ganglion of the Tuber Annula're are 
two bundles — one of fibres from the anterior pyramids and 
the front of the olivary bodies, the other from the posterior 



Fig. 145. 




ijiiiiji^: 







Fig. 145. Striated Bodies, Thalami, Quadrigeminal Body and CEREBEtLim. — 1, 
Qiiadrigeminal body. 3, Superior peduncle of the cerebellnm. 4, Superior portion of 
the middle peduncle. 5, Superior portion of the crus or leg of the cerebrum. 6, Pos- 
terior tubercle of the thalamus. 7, Anterior tubercle. 8, Fundamental portion of the 
cerebellum. 15, Thalamus. 16, Hemispheres of the cerebellnm. 17, Dentated body. 
18, Semicircular line. 19, Vein of the striated body. 20, Anterior crura of the fo'-nix. 
21, Striated body. 

pyramids and the back of the olivary bodies ; as they appear 
in front they diverge, forming stalk-like bundles known as 
the Peduncles of the Cerebrum^ as they seem to support the 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



201 



two hemis2)heres of the cere'hrum or brain proper. The anterior 
bundles pass up^Yard to the two large ganglia (one on each 
side of the median line), called the Corpora Striata or Striated 
Bodies ; the posterior bundles also pass upward to two ganglia 
situated a little in front of the striated bodies, and named 
the Op'tici Thal'ami. In these ganglia the fibres seem to 
terminate, while a new set connects the ganglia with the main 
surface of the cerebral hemispheres. (Fig. 145.) 

Fig. 146. 




Fig. 146. Section of the Brain along the Great Longitudinal Fissure.— 1, Medulla 
oblongata. 2, Pons. 3, Cms of the cerebrum. 4, Arborescent appearance in the oere- 
bellnm. 5, Left hemisphere of the cerebellum. 6, Inner surface of the left hemisphere 
of the cerebrum. 7, Corpus callosum. 8, Pellucid septum, 9, Fornix. 10, Anterior crus 
of the fornix. 19, Foramen of communication between the third and lateral ventricles. 
20, Optic nerve. 24, Oculo-motor nerve. 26, Fourth ventricle. 28, Quadrigeminal body. 
29, Entrance from the third to the fourth ventricle. SO, 31, 32, Anterior, middle and pos- 
terior lobes of the cerebrum. 

It will be noticed that these ganglia have an unbroken 
connection with the spinal cord through the peduncles of the 
cerebrum and the fibres of the medulla oblongata. 

Extending backward from the optic thalamus is a body 
divided on its upper surface into four eminences, hence called 
the Corpora Quadrigemhia or t'le Quadrigeminal body. It 
I * 



202 



AN^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



consists of four small gaoglions, sometimes named Optic Gang- 
lions (as they send nerves to the eye), which are attached to 
the peduncles of the optic thalamus, to the cerebellum and 
cerebrum, and to the medulla oblongata. (Fig. 1-45.) 

396. All the above-mentioned ganglia are variously con- 
nected with each other, with the peduncles of the cerebrum 
and cerebellum, and, through the medulla oblongata, with 
the spinal cord. 

397. The hemispheres of the cerebrum are closely united 
in their central part by a transverse commissure, called the 
Corpus Callosum. It forms the roof of a large central cavity 
between the two ganglia, corpora striata, the cavity being 

divided by a thin 
^^^- ^'^'^' double membrane (the 

pellucid septum) into 
two communicating 
apartments called the 
Lateral Ventricles. 
The floor of the lateral 
ventricles forms the 
roof of the Third 
Ventricle, which is a 
narrow cavity between 
the optic thai ami, 
communicating with 
the fourth ventricle, 
lying below and back 
of it, by a narrow 
passage-way. Hence 
it appears that the 
lateral ventricles, in 
the centre of the cere- 
brum, communicate 
with each other and with the third ventricle, the third with 
the fourth, and the fourth with the central canal of the spinal 
cord, making one unbroken communication through the whole 
extent. (Fig. 146.) 




Fig. 147 represents a Convoluted Cerebral Hemi- 
sphere. — a, a, The scalp turned down, b, b, 6, The cut 
edge of the bones of the skull, c, The external mem- 
brane of the brain (dura mater) suspended by a hook. 
d, The left hemisphere of the brain. 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 203 

398. The hemispheres of the cerebrum enclose all the other 
parts, in front, above and behind, like a great overshadowing 
dome. Their outer surface is of gray matter, hence they are 
essentially two connected ganglia, and the largest in the 
system. Each hemisphere is marked off by fissures into three 
lobes — the frontal, middle and posterior lobe or ganglion, the 
frontal being the largest, and there is a little offshoot of the 
frontal lobe, called the Olfactory. Each of these lobes has 
its surface moulded into many tortuous and complicated 
elevations of the cerebral substance, termed Convolutions^ 
which are marked off from each other by secondary winding 
fissures, named Sulci; thus there is formed '*one unbroken 
but undulating sheet" over the whole surface of the brain. 
(Figs. 146, 147.) 

399. The general plan of convolutions in the two hemi- 
spheres is the same, but in detail there is want of exact sym- 
metry. It is a remarkable fact that the higher the mental 
development, the more unsymmetrical and complicated are 
the convolutions, and the deeper the depressions or sulci. 

400. The cerebellum, like the cerebrum, has its hemispheres 
marked off into lobes. The lobes are highly subdivided on 
their sides and surface into thin plates or laminss by cresentic 
furrows or sulci. The white fibres within the cerebellum are 
so arranged that when a vertical section is taken it presents 
the appearance of the trunk and branches of a tree, and hence 
it bears the name of Arbor Vitce. (Fig. 146.) 

401. The parts already described, viz., the brain and spinal 
cord, constitute the Cerebrospinal Axis, from which proceed 

THE NERVES OF THE CEREBRO-SPINAL SYSTEM. 

402. Certain of these nerves conduct nerve-force froin the 
ganglia to their own distal ends in the tissues, chiefly mus- 
cular, where motion is produced. Other nerves carry im- 
pressions from their extremities to the centres ; the first are 
termed Motory from their function, and Efferent from the 
direction of conduction ; the second are termed Sensory and 
Afferent. The anterior fibrous bundles of the medulla ob- 



204 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 




longata, passing upward to the 
corpora striata, form a Motor Tracts 
so distinguished by the endow- 
ments of the nerves that issue 
from it; the posterior bundles, pass- 
ing to the Thalami Optici, form a 
Semory Tract. (Figs. 149, 150.) 

403. The Cerebro-spinal nerves 
are also distinguished as Cranial 
nerves when they pass directly 
from the brain through openings 
in the cranium, and as Spinal 
when they issue from the vertebral 
openings of the spinal column. 

The Cranial Nerves are ar- 
ranged in twelve pairs, named nu- 
merically, counting from before 
backward, or from their function, 
tero-iaterai fissure. 13, Posterior destination or specific character. 

root from postero-lateral fissure. rpj^ ^^ arranged in three 

14, (janglion on the posterior root. . . 

15, Spinal nerve formed by the grOUpS, aCCOrdiug tO their fuUCtioUS, 

union of the two roots. ^^ Sensory, Motovy and Mixed. 

Observation. — A nerve is said to originate by a single root when its 
bundles of fibres emanate from one spot or along the same line of the 
cerebro-spinal axis, and it is said to arise by two or more roots when 
its bundles of fibres form a corresponding number of series emanating 
from different points of the cerebro-spinal axis. 

The fibres composing the roots of the nerves are traceable into the 
substance of the brain and spinal cord, within which they are continu- 
ous with nerve-fibres of the white substance, or become connected with 
the neighboring gray substance. This interior connection of the nerves 
is called their deep origin, wliile their exterior connection with the 
cerebro-spinal axis is named their superficial origin. 

To ascertain the real origin of the nerves is among the most difiScult 
subjects of anatomical investigation, and our knowledge in this respect 
is very imperfect. 



Fig. 148. Segment of the Spinal 
Cord. — 1, Anterior median fissure. 
2, Posterior median fissure. 3, Pos- 
tero-lateral fissure. 4, Antero-late- 
ral fissure. 5, Anterior column. 
6, Lateral column. 7, Posterior col- 
umn. 8, Anterior commissure. 9, 
Anterior horns of the gray sub- 
stance. 10, Posterior horns. 11, 
Gray commissure. 12, Anterior root 
of a spinal nerve springing by a 
number of filaments from the 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
Fig. 149. 



205 




206 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



-5 ^ 

a> a> 53 

o ^ 

2 ^ =* 

S TO C 

o c £ 

CJ •;- Oi 



S 



c o § 



S -73 



he W) 

.5 — 



= s I § I 

So S -M » 

t, '^ ^ o o 

S 'i = ?? S 



'C o " -^ 



1 


1 1 « 1^ 


A 


"S s .2 6 Is 




^'^ ^5 J=> HH &. 

PU <1 pLn Ph OQ 



c 








S « 




«G 




"eS 


-S cS 


1 


^ 
'^ 




1 


^^1 


1 

B 


5 


^_^ 


S 


^ a 

^ 3 


.S 




lO 


c« 


00 


§0 


CO 


0) 


^ oT 


TS 


p. 
c 


""^ 




C p 


s 


U5 


be 
c 


^^ 


M 


^ 


P^ 


o 


•^-^ 


a> 


"5 






Pu o 


1 

s 




1 


o 
a- 


si 



o c 



O S O ti) 
rr^ OJ C C ; 

See S ' 



' 3 O O 



> ^ 



Oi T-H 



o g 



o ^ 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
Fig. 150. 



207 




Fig. 150. A Vertical Section of the Cerebrum, Cerebellum and Medulla Oblongata, 
showing the relation of the cranial nerves at their origin. — ^1, The cerebrum. 2, The cer- 
ebellum with its arbor vitae represented. 3, The medulla oblongata. 4, The spinal cord. 
5, The coi-pus callosum. 6, The first pair of nerves. 7, The second pair. 8, The eye. 
9, The third pair of nerves. 10, The fourth pair. 11. The fifth pair. 12, The sixth pair. 
13, The seventh pair. 14, The eighth pair. 15, The ninth pair. 16, The tenth pair. 19, 
The eleventh pair. 18, The twelfth pair. 20, Spinal nerves. 21, The tentorium. 

405. The Spinal Nerves are arranged in thirty-one pairs, 
and (unlike the cranial nerves, excepting the Trifacial) each 
arises by two roots — an anterior or Motor root, springing from 
the anterior columns of the spinal cord, which are continuous 
with the Motor tract before mentioned ; and a posterior or 
Sensitive root, from the posterior columns of the spinal cord, 
and continuous w'ith the Sensory tract. The Sensitive roots 
are larger than the. Motor, and each has an imbedded gang- 
lion, after the formation of which the two roots unite into one 
trunk, forming the spinal nerve, which passes out of the spinal 
column through the invertebral openings. 

406. The Spinal Nerves are divided into — 

Cervical 8 pairs. 

Dorsal 12 " 

Lumbar 5 " 

Sacral 6 " 



208 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

Ftg. 151. Fig. 152. 




Fia. 151. A Back View of the Brain and Spinal Cord.— 1, The cerebrum. 2, The 
cerebelhim. 3, The spinal cord. 4, Nerves of the face. 5, The brachial plexus of nerves. 
G, 7, 8, 9, Nerves of the arm. 10, Nerves that pass under the ribs. 11, The lumbar plexus 
of nerves. 12, The sacral plexus of nerves. 13, 14, 15, 16, Nerves of the lower limbs. 

Fig. 152 represents tue Sympathetic Ganglia and their Connection with other 
Nerves. — A, A, A, The semilunar ganglion and solar plexus. D, D, D, The thoracic 
(chest) ganglions. E, E. The external and internal branches of the thoracic ganglions. 
G, H, The right and left coronary plexus. I, N, Q, The inferior, middle and superior 
cervical (neck) ganglions. 1, The renal plexus of nerves. 2, The lumbar (loin) gang- 
lion. 3, Their internal branches. 4, Their external branches. 5, The aortic plexus 
of nerves. 

At some parts of their course certain branches of the nerves 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 209 

reunite, forming networks called plexuses. Thus the four 
upper cervical nerves anastomose, forming the cervical plexus, 
at the side of the neck ; the four lower cervical and the upper 
dorsal form the brachial plexus, from which proceed six 
nerves which ramify upon the muscles and skin of the upper 
extremities ; the last dorsal and four lumbar nerves form the 
himbar plexus, which sends off six nerves to ramify upon the 
muscles and skin of the lower extremities ; the last lumbar 
and four upper sacral form the sacral plexus, which distrib- 
utes nerves to the muscles and skin of the hip and lower 
extremities. (Fig. 151.) 

THE SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

407. The Sympathetic system, like the Cerebro-Spinal, is 
double, consisting of two chains of ganglia, one on each side 
of the spinal column, running through the deep parts of the 
neck, into the chest and abdomen. These ganglions com- 
municate with each other, with the spinal cord and with the 
internal organs — as the heart, lungs, stomach, liver, pan- 
creas, intestines and kidneys. In the neck and chest the 
ganglia are arranged in pairs ; those of the neck are three in 
number and the largest of the system ; those of the chest, 
twelve in number, a ganglion resting upon the head of 
each rib; in the abdomen the arrangement is irregular. 
(Fig. 152.) 

408. A peculiarity of the Sympathetic nerves is, that they 
follow the distribution of the blood-vessels. Starting from the 
heart, they envelop the large vessels with a close network, 
called the Arterial plexus ; and in the abdomen, behind the 
stomach, the large blood-vessels are surrounded by many 
small ganglia, all united by networks of fibres called the 
solar plexus, because the other plexuses of the abdomen 
radiate from it, like the rays diverging from the sun. In all 
parts of the body these nerves accompany the arteries which 
supply the different organs, and form networks around them 
which take the names of the organs — as the hepatic plexus, 
splenic plexus, mesenteric plexus, etc. 

18* 



210 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

^ 44. Histology of the Nervous System. — Three Microscopic 

Elements of Nerve- Tissue. Nerve-Cells. Nerve-Fibres. Membranes 
of Cerebro- Spinal System. 

409. Nervous Tissue is composed of three microscopic 
elements — Nerve- Cells or Ganglionic Corpuscles, White or 
Tubular Fibres and Gray or Gelatinous Fibres. 

410. The Nerve-Cells are nucleated cells ; that is, vesic- 
ular matter containing, besides a pulpy substance, an eccen- 
tric, roundish body or nucleus, enclosing one or more nucleoli 
surrounded by colored granules (Fig. 153). These nerve-cells 
have various branches or offsets starting from any part of the 
cell-wall and completely continuous with it and with the con- 
tents of the cell itself. The branches connect the cells with 

each other, and also with the nerve- 

r^,_ ' ' ■ fibres. Their number varies from one 

^'-^^'e <5 Q M^^ ^Q twenty, and the cells are accordingly 
' distinguished as unipolar, bipolar and 

/ multipolar (Fig. 10). A collection of 

g I; nerve-cells constitutes the essential part 

tof a Ganglion. They are imbedded in 
a matrix of fine, soft, granular matter, 
\^ \l I — and variously mingled and interwoven 

with multitudes of fibres. Composed 

Fm. 153. Portion of Gray 
Substance, from the Exte- 01 SUch maSSCS do WC find the whole 

EioR OF THE CEREBELLUM.— coHvolutcd surfacc of thc brain, the 

1, Two nerve-cells with bi- , , . ,• • ,i , • , ,i 

polar prolongations. 2, Gran- thalami optici, the corpora Striata, the 
uiar matter. 3. Nuclear quadrigcmiual body and some other 

bodies. 4, Nerve-fibres, •-11° i? ^i 

minute bodies ; irom these, one un- 
broken gray tract may be traced through the interior of the 
peduncles of the brain, the interior of the medulla oblongata 
and of the spinal cord. The various ganglia of the sympa- 
thetic system are also of the same substance. 

411. The White or Tubular Fibres, or the ultimate 
nerve-filaments, consist of an outer, structureless membrane 
enclosing a layer of transparent fluid fat, or medullary mat- 
ter, within which is a firmer part — a gray, ribbon-like thread, 
called the central band-axis, or the axis cylinder. This is 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



211 




Fig. 154. Nerve-Filaments, decussing with their 
sheuth. 



identical in structure with the processes of the nerve-cells 
with which it is continuous, and is very important, as it is 
sometimes the only part 

of the nerve-fibre left ^'^- ^'^' 

within the structureless 
sheath, thus constitut- 
ing the so-called pale, 
non-medullated nerve- 
fibre. As the medul- 
lary matter encloses the 
band-axis, it is often, 
though improperly, called the medullary sheath. 

412. The nerve-filaments are distributed to the skin, 
muscles and glandular organs in all parts of the body. 
From these points they 

approach each other, ^^^' ^^^' 

uniting into little bun- 
dles or fibres, and then 
into larger bundles, till 
they are of sufi&cient 
size to be seen by the 
naked eye, when they 
constitute a nerve. The 
filaments do not blend 
with each other, but lie 
in simple juxtaposition, 
each retaining a com- 
plete individuality from 
its origin to its termina- 
tion. Like the fibres of 
a muscle, they are bound 
together and protected 
by a covering of areolar 
tissue, called its Neurilem'a or sheath, which also contains 
the blood-vessels for the nutrition of the nerve. The fila- 
ments become gradually finer toward their outer extremities, 
till at length the sheath, medullary portion and band-axis 




Fig. 155. Diagram of Human Brain, in Vertical 
Section, showing the situation of the different gang- 
lia and the course of the fibres. — 1, Olfactory gang- 
lia. 2, Hemisphere. 3, Corpus striatum. 4, Optic 
thalamus. 5, Tiibercula quadrigemina. 6, Cere- 
bellum. 7, Ganglion of tuber annulare. 8, Ganglion 
of medulla oblongata. 



212 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

become undistinguishable. Their mode of termination is 
uncertain, though the sensory nerves, at least, seem to have 
free extremities. 

413. The tubular fibres compose the white parts of the 
brain and the spinal cord, the chief substance of the nerves, 
and also pass into and mix with the gray substance of the 
brain, cord and all the ganglia. They vary in size, being 
finest of all in the superficial layers of the brain, fine in the 
nerves of special sense and in the ganglia, larger in the fore 
part of the spinal cord, and largest in the m.otor nerves. 

414. Besides the White tubular fibres, there are found, 
chiefly in the Sympathetic System, Gray or Gelatinous 
Fibres, which are flattened, more minute than the white 
fibres, and greatly resembling their band-axis. Some have 
considered these but a form of connective tissue, but whether 
they be so considered, or as true nervous elements, they seem 
to be produced by the coalescence of elongated nucleated 
cells, the contents of which, as the cells enlarge, become soft 
and finely granular, while the nuclei appear wider and wider 
apart. 

415. The Membranes of the Cerebro-Spinal System are 
four in number — the Dura Mater, the Pia Mater, the AracN- 
noid Membrane and the Epeyi'dyma. The Dura Mater is a 
tough, fibrous membrane lining the bony walls of the skull 
and spinal column, forming their periosteum. The Pia Mater 
is another fibrous and very vascular membrane which closely 
invests the brain and spinal cord and sends processes into all 
their fissures. The inner surface of the dura mater and the 
outer surface of the pia mater, each becomes very delicate in 
structure, and are lined with an epithelium ; this gossamer 
membrane is named the Arachnoid Membrane. Its two 
layers unite at many points, thus forming closed sacs, which, 
like other serous membranes, secrete a fluid called the arach- 
noid fluid. 

416. The dura mater not only firmly invests the brain and 
spinal cord, but sends ofl* supporting partitions, that which 
descends between the hemispheres of the cerebrum being 



' NERVOUS SYSTEM. 213 

called the Cerebral Falx; that between the hemispheres of 
the cerebellum, the Cerebellar Falx; and that between the 
cerebrum and the cerebellum, the Tentorium. Through sepa- 
rations in the layers of the dura mater channels are formed, 
performing the office of veins ; they are named Sinuses of the 
Dura Mater, and are lined with a continuation of the ordinary 
epithelium of blood-vessels. The dura mater also furnishes 
the areolar sheaths to the several cranial and spinal nerves ; 
therefore it is continuous from the lining of the cranium to 
the extremity of the nerves in the different parts of the body. 

417. The Ependyma is a delicate, transparent, serous mem- 
brane, lining the ventricles of the brain and the central canal 
of the spinal cord. 

I 4:5, Physiology of the Nervous System. — Relation of the Ner- 
vous System to this Nature. 3Ian^s Compound Nature. The Rank of 
the Nervous System. Relation of the Nervous Centres to the Sensitive 
and Motor Nerves. Classification of the Centres. System of Dependen- 
cies. ' General Function of the Organic Centres. Their Modes of Reflex 
Action. Peculiarity of Sympathetic Action. Functions of the Reflex or 
Spinal Centres. Their Acquired Action and the Theory explaining it. 
Practical Importance of the Automatic Tendency produced by Repeti- 
tion and Association. Character of the Sensational Centres and their 
Action. Internal Stimuli to the Activity of these Centres. Functions 
of the Ideational Centres. Ideas suggested by the same Object different 
in different Individuals. Various Manifestations of Reflex Action in 
the Ideational Centres. Emotional Character of these Centres. Voli- 
tional Character. Relation of the Emotions to the Will. Influence of the 
Physical Nature for Good or for Evil. The Language of the Muscles. 

418. The Nervous System is the border-land where the 
material touches the immaterial. It possesses that highest 
refinement of physical organization through which the mind 
may manifest itself, and by means of which it may control 
and bring into service not only the various organs of the 
body, but other matter more external and remote. 

Observation. — At different periods of tbe world's history many differ- 
ent opinions have prevailed concerning the respective existence of body 
and soul and their relations to each other. The pagan Greek included 
all under the one word tpvx^/ and the Roman under that of anima, which 



214 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

was almost " equally applicable to the vegetable life of a cabbage, the 
animal life of a sheep and the spiritual life of an apostle." During the 
fifth century before the Christian era, Anaxagoras advanced a shadowy 
idea of man's compound nature, which at the day-dawn of Christianity 
assumed a clear and definite outline. At length, philosopher and 
Christian advocated the supremacy of the immaterial nature over the 
material, and eventually regarded their interests as antagonistic. The 
body was deemed the source of all evil, the work of the Prince of Dark- 
ness. At the present day more than at any former period efforts are 
being made to rightly balance the two natures, and yet many seem to 
regard the body as a gloomy prison-house in which God has shut us up, 
rather than as a beautiful "temple" in which the mind and soul may 
dwell as priest and priestess, using all its appointments in rendering 
service to the Lord of the temple. 

419. The organisms heretofore described have no inherent 
active power, but are entirely dependent upon the nervous 
system ; thus, the bones are dependent for movement upon 
the contractility of the muscles, this contractility upon the 
stimulus of the nerves, this stimulus upon the energetic action 
of the nerve-centres, and these centres are graded in rank 
and measurably dependent, the lowest upon the next higher, 
and so on to the highest or convoluted centres of the hemi- 
spheres. 

420. In their function the nervous centres are intermediate 
between the sensitive and motor fibres; as the sensitive fibres, 
being acted upon at their distal extremities, convey impres- 
sions inward to the centre, and the motor fibres, being acted 
upon at the centres, convey nerve-force outward and produce 
motion at their distal extremities. Let any part of the surface 
of the body be touched by a hot iron, and muscular contrac- 
tion instantly follows, but there has been time enough for the 
sensation of pain to be conveyed to the nervous centre, and 
for an impulse to be sent from that centre to the muscles: 
such action is called the Reflex Action of the Nervous System. 
By this means a communication is established between the 
diflTerent organs. This communication is never direct, but 
from one organ inward to the nervous centre, then outward 
to another organ ; so are the different functions associated and 
exercised for the common good of the whole. 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 215 

421. In dealing with the functions of the Nervous System 
we adopt the following classification of the Nervous Centres, 
viz. : 1st, The Primary or Ideational Centres, comprising the 
gray matter of the convolutions of the hemispheres. 2d, The 
Secondary or Sensational Centres, comprising the gray matter 
between the floors of the lateral ventricles and the decussa- 
tion of the pyramids. 3d, The Tertiary Centres, or Centres of 
Reflex Action, comprising the gray matter of the spinal cord. 
4th, The Quarternary or Organic Centres, comprising the gray 
matter of the Sympathetic System. 

Observation. — The arrangement of this system of centres is Uke that 
of a well-ordered body politic. Each distinct department or nerve- 
centre acts independently within certain limits, but beyond these limits 
it is subordinate to the next higher; thus, the Organic Centres are sub- 
ordinate to the Reflex or Spinal Centres, the Eeflex to the Sensorial, 
and all to the Ideational or Supreme Centres. In each centre the indi- 
vidual cells probably differ in rank, some having a higher dignity, some 
a lower, but each its special appointment, its assigned duty. 

422. The Organic or Sympathetic Centres are not 
well understood, but the distribution of their nerves would 
indicate that they exercise a controlling influence over the 
involuntary functions of digestion, absorption, circulation 
and assimilation. From the fact that these nerves reach 
their ultimate destination supported on the arterial vessels, it 
is probable that their influence is exerted through a certain 
control over the muscular coat of the heart and arteries, thus 
hastening or retarding the course of the blood, and increasing 
or diminishing its quantity in various organs. Thus the 
functions of nutrition, secretion, etc., depending so much 
upon the state of the circulation, are made to sympathize 
with each other Tery closely; hence the name "Sympathetic" 
System. 

423. The organic centres, being connected with the various 
organs by sensitive and motor nerves, are capable of an inde- 
pendent reflex action. They are also connected w4th the 
cerebro-spinal system, and are more or less assisted by and 
subordinate to it. In health the brain takes no cognizance 
of their action; when diseased, however, the centres report to 



216 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

the highest authority by means of cramps and other severely 
acute pains. In Its normal action a centre seems to expend 
only so much force as is disposed of by the motor nerves ; in 
diseased action there is a surplus, which is conveyed to the 
next highest centre, to be disposed of by its motor nerves ; if 
there is still a surplus, it passes on as before. 

424. There are three hinds of reflex action taking place either 
wholly or partially through the Sympathetic System, viz. : 
1st, The reflex action from the internal organs to the volun- 
tary muscles and sensitive surfaces ; examples are seen in the 
convulsions of children, caused by the irritation of undigested 
food in the intestines, and in adults in the attacks of tempo- 
rary blindness or confused vision so often accompanying in- 
digestion. 2d, The reflex action from the sensitive surfaces 
to the involuntary muscles and the internal organs ; as mental 
and moral impressions received by the senses disturb the mo- 
tions of the heart and aflect the circulation, digestion and 
secretion, disagreeable sights or odors produce nausea and 
other functional derangements. 3d, The reflex action be- 
tween the internal organs, as the associated action of the 
stomach, liver, etc. The variation in the capillary circula- 
tion of the abdominal viscera, according as they are active 
or inactive, is probably referable to a similar influence. 

Observation. — One marked peculiarity of the Sympathetic System is, 
that its nerves and ganglia act with much less rapidity than those of 
the Cerebro-spinal System ; hence, inflammation of the internal organs 
is not manifest for several hours after the application of the exciting 
cause, as the eflfects of a chill or cold do not usually follow immediately 
after the exposure. Because of this tardy action the effect remains long 
after the cause is removed. 

425. The Tertiary, Keflex or Spinal Centres. The 
white, tubular substance of the spinal cord connects the mus- 
cles and integuments below with the brain above, and thus 
assists in the production of conscious sensation and voluntary 
motion. The gray matter forms nerve-centres, which exert a 
general protective influence over the whole body. They preside 
over the involuntary movemeyits of the limbs and trunk; if a 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 217 

finger touch a heated surface, it is suddenly withdrawn, and 
that without effort of the will, and often in opposition to it. 
They regulate the action of the sphincter muscles, as in the rec- 
tum and bladder. They exercise a certain control over the 
changes of secretion, nutrition, etc., as is manifest in cases of 
disease. Thus we see that many human activities are per- 
formed by the refiex action of the spinal centres, inherent in 
their natural constitution. 

Observation 1. — They are, however, capable of an acquired reflex ac- 
tion which is matured through experience. An act or an association 
of acts becomes easier to them by repetition. This acquired power of 
reflex action has been accounted for by a theory* which is at least beau- 
tifully illustrative of the facts in the case. Every display of energy in 
the nerve-cells causes a change or waste of nervous element which is 
repaired by nutrition. This theory assumes that the character of the 
waste determines the character of the deposit ; that the particle deposited is 
necessarily endowed according to the particular kind of activity mani- 
fested, and that this endowment inclines the particle to the same kind of 
activity again. By each repetition the tendency becomes stronger and 
more definite, till, after a longer or shorter series of repetitions, the 
action becomes automatic. 

2. — When a certain class of movements have, after many voluntary 
efibrts, become associated, they become perceptibly more and more easy. 
Walking is at first a very conscious and voluntary act, but it may be- 
come so far reflex and automatic that one in a profound abstraction may 
continue to walk without being at all conscious where he is going, and 
when he wakes from his reverie may find himself in some other place 
than that which he intended to visit. Multitudes of our daily acts are 
the result of this acquired reflex action of the spinal centres. The wis- 
dom of such an arrangement is very evident, for but little could be ac- 
complished if acts became no easier by repetition and association. 

3. — Conscious efforts of the will soon produce exhaustion, while the 
automatic acts of which we are speaking occasion comparatively little 
weariness. We often say of certain rounds of duties that they do not 
weary us, for we are accustomed to them. In speaking of this acquired 
power of which the spinal centres are capable. Dr. Maudsley says: 
" Like the brain, the spinal cord has its memory. A spinal cord without 
memory would be an idiotic spinal cord, incapable of culture — a degene- 
rate nervous centre in which the organization of special faculties could 

^- Dr. Maudsley. 
19 K 



218 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

not take place. It is the lesson of a good education so consciously to 
exercise it in reference to its surroundings that it shall act automatically 
in accordance with the relations of the individual in his particular walk 
of life." 

426. The Sensational Centres, including the gray mat- 
ter of the medulla oblongata and of the base of the brain as 
far as the lateral ventricles, consist chiefly of the nervous 
centres of the higher or special senses, as sight, hearing, etc. 
Any one of these senses is quickly destroyed by destroying its 
ganglion ; the loss of the quadrigeminal body destroys the 
sight as effectually as putting out the eyes. That these cen- 
tres have an independent reflex action may be seen by the 
involuntary closure of the eyelid when a strong light falls 
upon the eye, or by the involuntary contortions of the face 
when an article is sour or bitter to the taste. These are ex- 
amples of natural reflex action, but like the spinal cord, these 
centres are capable of an acquired reflex action, as in the 
articulation of words upon seeing their signs, adapting the 
movements of the body to the rhythm of music in dancing, 
marching, etc. 

Observation 1, — Most of the sensations of the special senses become 
clear and definite only after a long course of training ; for instance, the 
visual sensation of the adult is a very different matter from that of the 
child whose eyes have recently opened upon the world. " The sensa- 
tion of the cultivated sense thus sums up, as it were, a thousand expe- 
riences, as one word often contains the accumulated acquisitions of 
generations." 

2. — In speaking of the acquired reflex action of the spinal centres we 
referred to the theory that a relic or residuum of every activity remained 
in the nerve-cell as a special endowment; that perhaps the character 
of the activity determined the character of the nutritive deposit. This 
theory is equally applicable to the sensational centres, and equally 
illustrative of the certain fact that acts of this class are rendered easier 
by repetition. 

427. The sensational centres are excited to activity not only 
by impressions from the organs of the special senses, but by 
sensations from within the body, both from the organic and 
ideational centres. Of the former examples are afforded when 
the higher nervous centres are weakened by disease or when 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 219 

the organic stimuli have an unnatural activity, as is the case 
with the intemperate man. 

428. The Ideational Centres seem to have the power 
of fashioning into ideas the impressions received by the sensa- 
tional centres. When the various properties of an object are 
presented by the different senses these centres reject the un- 
essential, and selecting the essential, mould them into an 
organic unity or idea. 

Observation 1. — By means of the sensorial centres and nerves we may 
gain perceptions or impressions of the qualities of a rose, but these 
would be isolated, and we should have no clear and definite idea of the 
rose without the moulding and vivifying influences of the ideational 
centres. 

2. — Different persons obtain very different ideas of the same object; 
the character of the idea being dependent upon the character of the 
organization both of the sensational and ideational centres, and the cha- 
racter of the organization upon natural endowment or inherited organiza- 
tion, and also upon the education received. 

429. The ideational centres, like those already described, 
are capable of an independent reflex action, which may be 
manifested in different w^ays: 1st, This may take place through 
the motor tract, thus giving rise to what have been named idea- 
motor movements. This energy may be exerted either upon 
the voluntary or involuntary muscles, and in the former case " 
either with or without consciousness. Examples of the reflex 
action of ideas upon our voluntary muscles are seen every hour 
of our waking life; these may be unconscious, as is seen in most 
persons who talk to themselves, or they may be conscious, and 
yet without the intervention of the will, as when a quick-tem- 
pered individual quickly resents an insult by a blow. 2d, 
The reflex action of an ideational nerve-cell may not only 
operate downward upon the muscular system, but downward 
upon the sensory centres ; the idea of a nauseous taste may 
excite the sensation to such a degree as to produce vomiting. 
3d, Another very important reflex action of these centres is 
that which modifies the secretions and nutrition; a flow of 
saliva may be produced by the thought of food, or a flow of 
tears by a sympathetic idea. 4th, There may be in these 



220 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

centres a reflex action among the cells themselves. One cell 
reacts to a stimulus from a neighboring cell, then transfers or 
reflects this energy to another. This may be the condition of 
activity among these cells during that process of the mind 
which we call Reflection. 

430. These ideational centres are also the seat of the Emo- 
tions. When an idea is attended with some feeling, either 
pleasant or unpleasant, it is so far Emotional; and when the 
feeling preponderates, the idea is obscured, and the state 
of mind is then called an Emotion, or when rising above 
the ordinary degree and becoming impatient of restraint, a 
Passio7i. 

431. Every centre of idea is also a centre of VoUtionary re- 
action. When an idea acts directly downward, we call the 
effect ideomoior ; but when there is deliberation or reflection 
delaying the action, and it afterward takes place downward, 
we call the effect volitional. Volition is also exercised in pre- 
venting as well as in producing an action. 

432. The exercise of the Will is the highest energy of 
which the supreme centres are capable. Within certain 
limits, the ideas and emotions are subject to its control. 
Suppose a being endowed with the intellectual and emotional 
natures, but not with the will ; though possessing the intelli- 
gence of a, man, his capacities for action would be inferior to 
those of the brutes, for, like them, his actions would be the 
result of mere sensational impulses, and yet he would be desti- 
tute of that natural guide of brutes which we call instinct. 
This represents the wretched condition of a man whose will 
is by any means so enfeebled that it fails to control the mental 
and physical powers. 

433. The power of the will depends both upon the inherited 
organization and also upon the training it has received, for 
volitions, like sensations and ideas, become more easy and 
definite by repetition. A naturally weak will may be greatly 
strengthened by due care and training. According to the 
theory before mentioned, each volition leaves its relic, trace 
or residuum which inclines the portion of nerve-element 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 221 

exercised to a like activity again. If we accustom ourselves 
to decide promptly, to act energetically and to carry out our 
purposes in the many smaller and less important affairs of 
life, we gain a power of will which may be carried into 
higher departments of action and into circumstances of 
greater embarrassment and difficulty. 

434. The Will bears very important relations to the Emo- 
tions. If they are allowed to react independently, as is their 
natural tendency, they weaken the will ; if duly controlled 
and co-ordinated, they strengthen it. The passionate nature 
of the child may, by proper training, become a potent force 
for good in after years, "giving a white heat, as it were, 
to the expression of thought, an intensity to the will." Un- 
trained, it will become a no less potent force for evil, and the 
individual under the mastery of his passions will be tossed 
about as helplessly as a boat in the rapids of Niagara. 

Observation 1. — We have seen that the mind is closely united and yet 
distinct from the material organs through which it acts — dependent for 
its manifestations, but independent in essence. So intimate is the union 
that the body exercises a powerful influence in leading us upward into 
a true and higher life, or downward into a low and sensual existence. 
What this influence shall be depends somewhat upon inherited organiza- 
tion, but more upon education. Accepting the theory already advanced 
as at least illustrative, we see that if the thoughts, feelings and volitions 
are pure and true and good, their impressions or residua remaining in 
the nerve-cells are of the same character, and tend to give a right direc- 
tion to the future activities of these cells. If the thoughts, feelings and 
volitions are evil in nature, the impressions or residua will also be evil, 
inclining to evil activities in the future. When we resist a temptation 
to wrong action, then we not only avoid the particular evil, but lay up 
that which will render the next resistance easier and more natural. If 
we yield to the temptation, we are not only guilty of the particular 
wrong, but lay up that which will make resistance more difficult or 
yielding more easy and natural for the future. When a man sets his 
heart to do right, all his physical being struggles to give him aid ; and 
when he sets his heart to do wrong, its energies are expended in drag- 
ging him downward. 

2. — The visible impress which the workings of the mind leave upon 
the body is worthy our notice. The character of the man is declared 
by the lines of his muscles, which tell no lies. Especially is this true 
19* 



222 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

of the muscles of his face. Let him narrow his soul by penurionsness, 
become the victim of rasping jealousy, wear the nettles of envy against 
his heart, or be the slave of defiling lust, and in spite of any natural 
comeliness or studied concealment, his true character will be proclaimed 
to all who have learned aught of the language of the muscles. '' Be 
sure your sin will find you out," says He who has made the fleshly 
lineaments to reveal the most hidden vice. The more secret the 
viciousness, the deeper is the impress. But if the spirit of evil thus 
leaves the traces of its blackened pen upon the face, the spirit of good- 
ness writes thereon in no less legible characters of light. Purity of 
heart, nobleness of purpose, restfulness of soul, soften, irradiate, spirit- 
ualize the outer man, giving a higher beauty than that of form or com- 
plexion, even to him who is wrinkled by years, bowed by infirmity and 
scarred by the battles of life. 



§ 46. Hygiene of the Nervous System. — Two Classes of Agencies 
affecting the Health of the Nervous System. Natural Heritage. Im- 
portance of the Physical Agency — Air — Diet — Exercise and Sleep. 
The Effect of Mental Impressions on the Body. Mental Exercise. Re- 
creation and Amusement. Harmonious Development of the Different 
Mental Powers. 

435. We have seen that different organs of the body are 
entirely dependent for functional action upon the stimulus 
afforded by the nervous system ; and since this is the mate- 
rial organization through which the mind acts, we are led to 
the inevitable conclusion that the physical condition of this 
system must affect, more or less, the mental manifestations. 
It becomes, then, a matter of primary importance that we 
understand the conditions essential to the health of this sys- 
tem, especially as suffering from nervous disease exceeds that 
of other diseases, as the delicacy of the organization exceeds 
that of other organizations of the body. 

436. In considering the hygiene of the nervous system, it 
is necessary to have reference both to physical and mental 
agencies. The highest health and vigor of the nervous sys- 
tem doubtless require — 1st, A sound nervous organization by 
inheritance ; 2d, A nutrition equal to the demands of repair 
and growth ; 3d, The harmonious action of the various mental 
powers. 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 223 

437. 1st, A Sound Organization by Inheritance. 
" Each of us is only the footing-up of a double columa of 
figures that goes back to the first pair," is the striking ex- 
pression of a great truth. Every-day observation shows that 
children inherit not only the features, but the physical, 
mental and moral constitution of their parents. Even those 
utterly ignorant of the laws of transmission are wont to 
estimate the child according to its family ; favorably, if of a 
^'good family" or "good blood;" unfavorably, if of a "bad 
family" or " bad blood." 

Every formation of body, internal and external, all intel- 
lectual endowments and aptitudes, and all moral qualities, 
are or may be transmissible from parent to child. If one 
generation is missed, the qualities may appear in the next 
generation. It is important to notice that not only the 
natural constitution of the parents may be inherited, but their 
acquired habits of life, whether virtuous or vicious, but espe- 
cially is this true of vice. Even when the identical vice does 
not appear, there is a morbid organization and a tendency to 
some vice akin to it. Not only is the evil tendency trans- 
mitted, but what was the simple practice, the voluntarily 
adopted and cherished vice of the parent, becomes the pas- 
sion, the overpowering impulse, of the child. 

Illustraiion 1. — M. Morel sketches the history of four generations as 
follows: '^ First Generation. — The father was an habitual drunkard, and 
was killed in a public-house brawl. Second Generation. — The son in- 
herited his father's habits, which gave rise to attacks of mania, termi- 
nating in paralysis and death. Third Generation. — The grandson was 
strictly sober, but full of hypochondriacal and imaginary fears of perse- 
cutions, etc., and had homicidal tendencies. Fourth Generation. — The 
fourth in descent had very limited intelligence, and had an attack of 
madness when sixteen years old, terminating in stupidity nearly amount- 
ing to idiocy ; with him the race probably becomes extinct." 

2. — Says a learned physician, after long and close observation of the 
evil efiects of tobacco : " If the evil ended with the individual who, by 
the indulgence of a pernicious custom, injures his own health and im- 
pairs his faculties of mind and body, he might be left to his enjoyment, 
his fool's paradise, unmolested. This, however, is not the case. In no 
instance is the sin of the father more strikingly visited upon the chil- 



224 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

dren than in the sin of tobacco-smoking. The enervation, tlje hysteria, 
the insanity, the dwarfish deformities, the consumption, the sufiering 
lives and early deaths of the children of inveterate smokers bear amp'e 
testimony to the feebleness and unsoundness of the constitution trans- 
mitted by this pernicious habit." 

3. — Should we trace the effects of the whole list of vices, it would be 
with equally sad results ; even of the great love of money-getting, the 
celebrated Dr. Maudsley says : " I cannot but think, after what I have 
seen, that the extreme passion for getting rich, absorbing the whole 
energies of a life, does predispose to mental degeneration in the off- 
spring, either to moral defect, or to moral and intellectual deficiency, 
or to outbreaks of insanity." 

4. — Any kind of nervous disease in the parents, whether natural or 
acquired, seems to predispose to innate feebleness in the child. From 
this instability of nervous element, the slightest irritation often pro- 
duces convulsions in the young child and loss of equilibrium in the 
adult. Such a natural constitution may be improved by a judicious 
education and strict obedience to physical and mental^ laws, but the 
original defect can never be entirely removed. 

438. 2d, A Nutrition equal to the Demands op 
Kepair and Growth. The relation of the nervous centres 
to the blood is the same in kind as that between other parts 
of the body and their blood-supply. Great waste is produced 
by nervous action ; hence, the centres are very largely sup- 
plied with blood-vessels, especially the Ideational centres. 
The activity of ideas is largely dependent upon the active 
flow of blood to the nerve-cells. Activity of thought invites 
the blood which, in turn, is so necessary to activity. The 
nerve-centres, then, must be supplied with the proper quality 
and quantity of blood; hence, whatever deteriorates the 
blood impairs the health of the nervous system. It is evi- 
dent, then, that — 

439. The nervous system may he impaired by impure air. 
Everybody knows that bad air injures the lungs, but few 
realize that, on the whole, it injures the brain still more. 
As the nerve-tissue is the most delicate part of the body, 
it soonest feels the evil effects of imperfectly oxygenated 
blood. (§40.) 

440. 2Vie nervous system may be impaired by improper diet. 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 225 

We are wont to believe that improper diet may affect the 
digestive organs, but seldom consider the mental and moral 
effects of such diet. Improper food poisons the blood, and 
thus the nerve-centres are cheated of their nutriment, and 
also poisoned ; hence, the ideas become confused, the emo- 
tions morbid and the will weakened. The whole man is. 
crippled, physically, mentally and morally. It is an indis- 
putable fact that had bread, for instance, may thus have a 
very immoral influence. Those much engaged in mental 
labor suffer most from bad diet. No teacher can teach well, 
no lawyer can plead well, no physician can practice well, no 
minister can think or preach well, who habitually takes im- 
proper food. (§ 21.) 

Observation 1. — If such be the effect of improper food, what shall we 
say of such poisons as alcohol, opium, hascliish, tobacco, etc., which act 
so directly and powerfully upon the nervous system ? The same poison 
does not equally afiect all the nerve-centres ; thus, strychnine acts upon 
the spinal centres, but not the cerebral ; hascliish, upon the sensory 
centres, giving rise to hallucinations ; alcohol, upon the cerebral centres 
particularly. The alcoholic poison first produces an increased activity 
of the muscles, then alternate exaltation and depression, both physical 
and mental ; finally, stupor, relaxation of the muscles and deep sleep. 
These symptoms are transitory ; but let the poisoning process be con- 
tinued, and true delirium, so well known as " delirium tremens," fol- 
lows, and at length what is known as "chronic alcoholism;" and 
while intoxication lasts a few hours, and delirium tremens a few days 
or weeks, chronic alcoholism spreads its baneful influence over years, 
unless death prevents the full development of the tragedy. The victim 
of alcoholic poison is equally enfeebled in body and mind. The nervous 
system becomes exhausted, the moral sentiments perverted, the will- 
power broken, and he seems powerless to cease from the fatal habit 
which has produced the change. 

2. — With the opium-eater the diseases of the nervous system declare 
themselves even more rapidly than with the drunkard. Says M. Morel : 
" Given the period at which a person begins to smoke opium, and it is 
easy to predicate the time of his death : his days are numbered." 

3. — Tobacco is one of the most virulent poisons. It soothes the nerves 
temporarily, only to leave them more enfeebled and irritable. 

4. — Even excessive use of tea and coffee may prove disastrous to the 
health of the nervous system. 

K* 



226 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

441. The nervous system may be impaired by want of physical 
exercise. Among other agencies that aiFect the nervous sys- 
tem, none exert a wider influence than bodily exercise. It 
seems to be required to complete the change which the blood 
undergoes while passing through the lungs and skin, without 
which the waste of nerve-element could not be repaired. In 
persons who are merely sedentary, having little occasion for 
active thought, this want of exercise is sufficiently mis- 
chievous ; but when there is great mental activity, the mis- 
chief is vastly increased. Thousands of ministers, lawyers, 
those who sit in the bank and counting-room, shorten their 
days because of this neglect : especially is this the case in 
America. The English nobility, notwithstanding their many 
indulgences, are a long-lived race, and this is doubtless owing 
to their spending so much time in open-air exercise. (§ 41.) 

442. The nervous system and mental activities may be enfee- 
bled by an unhealthy skin. If its normal state is impaired by 
want of cleanliness, by deficient apparel or by a diseased ac- 
tion of the nucleated epithelium through an intimate sympa- 
thy in like tissues, the nucleated cells of the nerve-tissue may 
be seriously affected. (§ 49.) 

443. The nervous system may become impaired by taking too 
little sleep. " Sleep knits up the raveled structure " of ner- 
vous element, for during sleep organic assimilation is restoring 
what has been expended in functional energy. A periodical 
renewal of nervous energy as often as once a day is an insti- 
tution of Nature. Among the wise arrangements of the Cre- 
ator, none harmonizes with the wants of the system more 
perfectly than the alternation of day and night. The amount 
of sleep necessary depends upon the age, health, natural 
temperament and occupation of the individual. The more 
rapid the exhaustion of nervous energy from any cause, the 
more sleep will be required. The young and the aged need 
more sleep than the person of middle life, the sick more than 
the well, those engaged in mental pursuits more than those 
wearied by manual labor, persons of great sensibility more 
than the sluggish natures whose normal condition is more 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 227 

nearly allied to sleep, woman more than man. We may say 
in general that the time should not be less than from six to 
eight hours,- and most persons require a longer period. The 
time, however, must be proportioned to the need. 

Observation. — Among the more affluent classes the customs of the 
times are quite incompatible with those habits of sleep which are essen- 
tial to mental vigor. Where amusements are pursued till late hours 
night after night, the nervous system greatly suffers, and every depart- 
ment of the mind becomes unhealthy. The man who, eager to become 
rich, takes time from his sleep for business purposes, draws from his 
brain capital. The mother — Alas! here we must stop. Mothers are 
the one class who hardly get any rest till the "blessed Father takes 
them in his arras and gives his beloved sleep." 

444. 3d, Harmonious Action of the Various Mental 
Powers. That the bodily organs may be directly affected 
by impressions purely mental does not admit of doubt. Of 
this fact the skillful physician never loses sight, for a hope- 
ful, healthful influence of the mind may be made a remedial 
agency quite as powerful as that of drugs and plasters. 

445. Regular and systematic mental exercise is essential to the 
health of nerve-tissue. Exercise increases the flow of blood to 
the active part. We have seen this to be the case in the 
muscle, and that by use it is both enlarged and strengthened. 
In like manner the nerve-tissue needs exercise ; and as the 
gymnast becomes expert, not by spasmodic muscular efforts, 
but by accurate, persistent drill, so must the mental athlete 
gain his power by the regular performance of such exercise 
as he is able to bear. The gymnast at first feels pain in his 
muscles, but he has only to persevere, with proper intervals 
of rest, and what was at first so difficult becomes easy, while 
power is gained for severer feats. So the person unaccus- 
tomed to mental gymnastics feels headache and confusion at 
first, but frequent repetition will make easy and natural the 
very thoughts which struggled so painfully into existence, 
and the nerve-tissue will gain the firmness which increases its 
capability of action. Under such a course of training the 
change in the brain-tissue is often so great as to modify per- 
ceptibly the form of the head. 



228 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

Observation. — Says Dr, Ray : " I have no hesitation in saying that of 
all the means for preserving health there is nothing more sure or better 
suited to a greater variety of persons than habits of regular and sys- 
tematic mental occupation of some dignity and worth. In this prop- 
osition I would embrace all those kinds of employment which pass 
under the general name of business, and which, little as we are disposed 
to recognize the fact, bear the same relation to the health of the mind 
that food, exercise, etc, do to the health of the body. Work is the 
condition of our being as active and progressive creatures." 

446. The saddest effects of the absence of stated useful em- 
ployment are seen among women of easy circumstances. "It is a 
poor view of woman's duties and capacities that confines her 
to a little busy idleness because the chances of fortune have 
placed her beyond the necessity of earning a living ; and they 
must have but a narrow view of the exigencies of social life 
who believe that any woman of tolerable health and strength 
may not find abundant opportunities of that kind of work 
which affords no other recompense than the consciousness of 
doing good, and therefore to be done, if done at all, by those 
who can dispense with every other compensation." 

Observation. — A life of idleness and luxurious ease can be no more 
honorable to one sex than to the other, and we know very well that in 
a man it creates no claims upon the respect and confidence of the com- 
munity. The little accomplishments of needlework, so generally dif- 
fused, cannot be dignified with the name of work. Many a mind, libe- 
rally endowed, from want of mental exertion becomes dwarfed or may 
end in mental depression, particularly if ill health or deep affliction 
throws its weight into the scale. 

447. The amount of exercise shoidd he adapted to the health 
and age of the individual. If from any cause the nervous 
system be weakened, an amount of exercise which would be 
quite harmless to one in health may prove disastrous. The 
nerve-tissue of children and youth needs the same care as has 
been shown requisite for other tissues, and overwork that in 
the adult is followed by fatigue, easily removed by rest, in. 
the child may result in irreparable injury. At this period 
the tissue is soft and yielding, and when the blood-vessels 
become long distended by great activity, they may become 
permanently enlarged and permanent congestion produced. 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 229 

The present tendency is to treat the mind like a race-horse, 
goading it on to make a certain round in a given time, and 
that before the brain-tissue has gained the consolidation 
requisite for severe exertion. Mary Lyon, with her charac- 
teristic wisdom, refused to admit to the Mount Holyoke course 
of study girls under sixteen years of age, and from her long 
list of applicants usually selected those not less than eighteen. 
Let the material organ of the mind be subjected to a system- 
atic, thorough, gymnastic training, taking for it the necessary 
time, and the firm, educated tissue will be fitted for enduring 
labor in later years ; but let it be weakened in youth, and it 
must ever work under a burden, if indeed it work at all. 
Moderation in mental exertion is also a necessity with the 
aged, as they have no vitality for recuperation after severe 
exhaustion. 

448. Intense activity too long continued impairs the strongest 
brain. The nerve-cells in a state of rest are neutral in their 
chemical character, but after severe exercise they become 
acid. When in this condition it is hazardous to continue the 
exercise. Sufficient rest should be taken to restore them to 
their normal condition. Congestion, or an undue accumula- 
tion of blood, also attends excessive functional action. The 
effect of severe congestion in the spinal centres is to produce 
convulsions; in the sensory centres roaring in the ears, flashes 
of light before the eyes and various hallucinations; in the 
ideational centres stagnation of ideas, swimming in the head, 
and, if long continued, irregular and convulsive action of the 
cells, causing delirium. 

449. The required rest is often afforded by recreation and 
amusement. Important as stated employment unquestionably 
is to the mental health, amusement or recreation is scarcely 
less so. Few persons, whatever their mental character or 
temperament, can safely dispense with these altogether. Even 
the most commanding intellects sometimes seek the recreation 
which their exhausting labors make necessary in forms of 
amusement which, to those who feel the necessity less, seem 
to be frivolous and puerile. 



230 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

Observation 1. — To those whose life is one of severe toil and harassing 
care, amusements constitute almost the only practicable means for re- 
pairing the constant waste of the nervous energy. Especially is this 
want felt by women in the humbler walks of life, whose daily round of 
care and toil not only draws more largely than that of the stronger sex 
on the physical and mental energies, but is lightened by none of that 
relief which is afibrded by a greater variety of duties and more frequent 
periods of rest. 

2. — The brain, when severely taxed, is often rested by some kind of 
mental exercise, which, without being fatiguing, requires just enough 
effort to impart interest. Hence, a change from mathematics to the 
languages, or from these to music, poetry or painting, will give the 
needed relaxation. 

450. To maintain the highest mental vigor each faculty of the 
mind should receive its due share of cultivation. Our various 
faculties were not bestowed at random, to be used as inclina- 
tion may prompt, but each has its appointed place in the 
mental economy. Each bears some relation to every other, 
making one harmonious whole. One must form habits of 
attention, accustom the mind to continuous thought, cultivate 
the reasoning powers and beget a taste for exact knowledge, 
if he would be in any measure equal to the intellectual effort 
essential to true success in every calling of life. He must, 
however, also call into action the creative power of the mind, 
the imagination, to give vividness to his conception, to add 
force to his reasoning, and to light up the whole horizon of 
his thought. Its exercise must not be indulged to an extent 
incompatible with the claims of the other faculties. It must 
not be allowed to fashion with unbridled power our principles 
and motives, our aims and ends. Give it, however, the purest 
material to work with, and, within proper bounds, no faculty 
is of more real service or more worthy of our regard. Espe- 
cially is it of value in presenting to the mind an ideal of ex- 
cellence, a standard of attainment, practicable and desirable, 
but loftier than anything we have yet reached. 

451. The cesthetic faculty, the love of the beautiful, should 
not be allowed to remain inactive. Its importance is recog- 
nized only as we understand its value. An object is beautiful 
to us just in proportion to our power to discover through the 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 231 

material form the thought of which this form is but the ex- 
pression, for beauty is but the spirit looking out through the 
visible, the material. 

452. Mail has also a moral faculty, the power of discrimi- 
nating between right and wrong, which is quickly followed 
by the feeling of obligation to do the right and avoid the 
wrong. Upon the right use of these faculties depend the 
happiness and the destiny of man. The power of an approv- 
ing conscience over the human mind, and consequently over 
the health of the Nervous System, cannot be over-estimated, 
while on the other hand the torments of an accusing con- 
science not only "cut the sinews of the soul's inherent 
strength," but snap one by one the gossamer filaments of the 
brittle thread of life. 

453. Concerning the hygienic influence of a Harmonious 
Development OF THE Mental Powers, Dr. Kay says: "A 
partial cultivation of the mental faculties is incompatible not 
only with the highest order of thought, but with the highest 
degree of health and efficiency. The result of professional 
experience fairly warrants the statement that in persons of a 
high grade of intellectual endowment and cultivation, other 
things being equal, the force of moral shocks is more easily 
broken, tedious and harassing exercise of particular powers 
more safely borne, than in those of an opposite direction, and 
disease, when it comes, is more readily controlled and cured. 
The kind of management which consists in awakening a new 
order of emotion, in exciting new trains of thought, in turn- 
ing attention to some new matter of study or speculation, 
must be far less efficacious, because less applicable, in one 
whose mind has always had a limited range, than in one of 
larger resources and capacities. In endeavoring to restore 
the disordered mind of the clodhopper who has scarcely an 
idea beyond that of his manual employment, the great diffi- 
culty is to find some available point from which conservative 
influences may be projected. He dislikes reading, he never 
learned amusements, he feels no interest in the affairs of the 
world, and, unless the circumstances allow of some kind of 



232 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



bodily labor, his mind must remain in a state of solitary iso 
lation, brooding over its morbid fancies, and utterly incompe 
tent to initiate any recuperative movement." 



^ 47. Comparative Neurology. — The Comparison of the Nervou» 
System of other Mammals with that of Man — Of Birds — Of Reptiles — • 
Of Amphibians — Of Fishes. Peculiar Arrangement of some Fishes. 
The Arrangement of the Nervous System of Mollusca — Of Radiata. 

454. Animals, whatever their structure may be, have cer- 
tain relations with the external world ; all nourish them- 
selves ; the lowest type, as the sponge, nourishes itself, as far 

as the result to itself 
is concerned, as does 
man. All Vertebrates 
do not possess a verte- 
bral column, but all 
do possess something 
analogous to the 
spinal cord — a ' ' noto- 
chord." The nervous 
system of Vertebrates 
is highly developed, 
and is composed of 
nerves, ganglions and 
a cerebro-spinal axis, 
or brain and spinal 
cord. The latter are 
not represented in 
Invertebrates. 

455. In oihQv Mam- 
mals, the relative size 
of the cerebrum and 
cerebellum, except in 
the lowest order, as 
the Duck-mole, is about the same as in man ; but the sulci 
of the brain of other mammals are less developed than in 
man, and certain ganglions are comparatively larger. The 




Fig. 156 {Owen). Base of Brain op a Horse. — 1, 
Cerebrum. 2, Optic ganglion. 3, Cerebellum. 4, Me- 
dulla Oblongata and Spinal Cord, 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



233 



brain of all mammals is formed on the same plan ; in man 
alone the posterior lobe of the cerebrum overlaps the cere- 
bellum. In the Horse, Ox, etc., the olfactory, optic and 
auditory ganglions are large, and the senses of smell, sight 
and hearing are acute. In some animals, as the Mole, where 
vision is feeble, and in others where smell or hearing is ob- 
tuse, the ganglionic bulbs are very small and the nerves very 
delicate. 

456. In Birds the hemispheres are not united by a corpus 
callosum ; the cerebellum is proportionately larger than the 
medulla oblongata, and the comparative weight of the brain 



Fig. 159. 





Fig. 157. Brain of an Altjgatok.— 1, Olfactory ganglia. 2, Cerebrum. 3, Optic 
ganglia. 4, Cerebellum. 5, Medulla Oblongata and Spinal Corl. 

Fig. 158. Brain of a Bird.— 1, Cerebrum. 2. Optic ganglion. 3, Cerebellum. 4, 
Medulla Oblongata. 

Fig. 159. Bkain of a Fish. — 1, Olfactory ganglia 2, Cerebrum, 3. Optic ganglia. 4, 
Cerebellum. 5, Medulla Oblongata and Spinal Cord. 



to the body is less than in mammals. The optic ganglions 
in birds are large, which is particularly apparent in the Eagle, 
Vulture and Buzzard. In these, vision is not only far-reach- 
ing, but acute, and the same is true, to a certain extent, of 
smell and hearing. 

457. The brain of Reptiles is smooth and without convolu- 
tions. The hemispheres are hollow, and there is no striated 
body. The cerebellum sends no prolongations across the 

20* 



234 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



medulla oblongata, as in mammals. The optic and olfactory 
ganglions are, in general, large. Hearing is less complete 
than in mammals. 

458. In Amphihians the nervous system is but slightly de- 
veloped. The cerebrum is small ; the cerebellum is scarcely 
visible. 

459. The brain of the Fish is small ; it does not fill the 
whole cranial cavity, there being found within it a spongy, 

fatty mass. The in- 
vestment and protec- 
tion of some of the 
organs of special sense 
are modified, as seen 
in the eye of the deep- 
sea shark, where the 
sclerotic tunic of the 
eye is bony, in order 
to protect this organ 
from the great press- 
ure of the water. Per- 
haps the most won- 
derful arrangement is 
found in the electric 
fishes, as the com- 
mon Torpedo, and the 
Electric Eel of South 
America. In the lat- 
ter,the electric organs 
are composed of mem- 
branous tubes closely 
packed like honey- 
Fio. 160. EL.CTKIC Ok^ns of ToKPKBo.-i, Brain, ^omb and arranged 

2 Spinal cord. 3, Eye and optic nerve. 4, Spinal aloug the back and 

tail. The peculiar 
electric property de- 
pends on the posterior lobe of the brain. 

460. In the Annulosa, in general, each segment or ring has 




nerve. 5, Branch 
gastric nerve. 



1, Electrical organ. 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



235 



a pair of nervous ganglions. The ganglions of the nerves of 
special sensation, as of sight and hearing, of motion, of respira- 
tion and nutrition, are larger than 
those of general sensation. ^^* 

461. The nervous system of insects 
is composed principally of a double 
series of ganglions united by longi- 
tudinal cords. The brain ganglions 
are large, and give origin to the 
optic nerves and the antennae. 

In the nervous system of the cen- 
tipede, whose general structure is 
similar to that of other articulates, 
the ganglions are arranged in pairs 
of nearly equal size, except the 
ganglion that answers to the brain, 
which is larger, along the ventral 
surface of the alimentary canal. 
Each pair is connected with the ]jre- 
ceding, with the integument or skin, and with the muscles of 
its own segment, by sensitive and motor filaments of nerves. 




Fig. 161. Nervous System op 
THE Beetle. — 1, 1, Central gang- 
lia. 2, 2, 2, Nerves that connect 
the ganglia. 



\\\\)\\iinnni 






'j}))yfjjf}]\)\\W 



Fig. 162. Diagram of a Centipede. 



462. In Mollusca are found the ganglia and commissure 
arrangement, with nerves sensitive and motor, afferent and 
efferent, and on a plan corresponding to the body. The 
structure of the organs of sense is less complete than in ver- 
tebrate animals. Some mollusca possess only the sense of 
touch and taste ; a great number have eyes, whose structure 
varies ; none have yet been found possessing a special organ 
for smell. (Fig. 163.) 



236 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



463. In the Radiata the star-fish manifests one of the 
simplest forms of the nervous system. It consists of a central 
mass, with five arms radiating from it. In the centre is the 
mouth, and beneath it the stomach or gastric cavity, which 
sends prolongations to each limb. The nervous system con- 
sists of five similar ganglions situated in the central portion 
at the base of the arms. These ganglions are connected by 
commissures, and each sends oflT nerve-filaments to the cor- 
responding limbs. (Fig. 164.) 




Fig. 163. Diagram of the Type of a Moliusca.— 1, (Esophagal ganglia 
ganglia. 3, Pedal of locomotive ganglia. 4, Respiratory ganglia. 
EiG. 164. Diagram of a Radiata — The Star-fish. 



Observation 1. — We have seen that in all grades of the animal king- 
dom the cell-structure obtains, but in the lowest forms of animal life 
nerve does not exist. The stimulus which the little creature receives 
from without would seem to produce some change in the molecular 
relations of its almost homogeneous substance, and these insensible 
movements collectively to amount to the sensible movement which it 
makes. 

2. — With the differentiation of tissue and increasing complexity of 
organization which are met with as we ascend in the animal kingdom 
the nervous tissue appears, but at first under a very simple form. Its 
simplest type may be represented as two fibres that are connected by a 
nerve-cell ; the fibres are apparently simple conductors, and might be 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 237 

aptly compared to the conducting wires of a telegraph, while the cell, 
being the centre in which nerve-force is generated, may be compared to 
the telegraphic apparatus. In it the effect which the stimulus of the 
afferent nerve excites is transmitted along the efferent nerve, and there- 
in is displayed the simplest form of that reflex action which plays so 
large a part in animal life. 

3. — The relations of the animal kingdom afford a striking evidence 
of divine unity, bound together in the closest harmony, and the work 
of Him who was the Beginning and will be the End. 



ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 

Chapter XI.— Nervous System. 

g 4:3. Anatomy of the Ne-)-vous System. — 392. What two formal characters does Nervous 
Tissue present? Give the arrangement and names of each. 393. How are the Ganglia, 
Nerves and Commissiires arranged? What is included in each system? 394. Describe 
the Spinal Cord. What is the Medulla Oblongata? To what is this enlargement due? 
What may be seen in each of the lateral halves of the Medulla Oblongata? What forms 
the Decussation of the Anterior Pyramid? How is the Fourth Ventricle formed? 395. 
Where is the Cerebellum? How is the Pons Varolii formed? Desci'ibe the Inferior 
Peduncles of the Cerebellum. What are the Peduncles of the Cerebrum? Give the 
course of these bundles. How are these ganglia connected with the Spinal Cord? Of 
what does the Quadrigeminal Body consist ? 396. What is said of the connections of all 
the above-mentioned ganglia? 397. How are the hemispheres of the Cerebrum united? 
How are the ventricles formed? 398. What is the relation of the Cerebrum to the other 
parts? How many lobes has each hemisphere? How does the surface appear? 399. 
How do the convolutions in the two hemispheres compare ? What is a remarkable fact 
respecting these convolutions ? 400. What is said of the Cerebellum ? 401. What do the 
brain and spinal cord constitute? 402. Into what classes are the cerebro-spinal nerves 
divided? How are the motor and sensory tracts formed? 403. Distinguish between 
cranial and spinal nerves. 404. How are the cranial nerves arranged? 405. How many 
pairs of spinal nerves? How do they differ from the cranial as to their origin? Com- 
pare the sensitive sort with the motor. 406. What are the di\isions of the spinal ner\ es ? 
What are plexuses? Name them and give their formation. 407. Describe the Sympa- 
thetic System. 408. What is a peculiarity of the sympathetic nerves ? 

g 4:4:. Histology of the Nervous System.— 4=09. Name the elements of ners-ous tissue. 

410. Describe the nerve-cells. What is a Ganglion? Where are the nerve-cells found? 

411. Of what do the Wliite Fibres consist ? 412. Where are the nerve-filaments distrib- 
uted ? What is said of their individuality ? How are they arranged ? What their mode 
of termination ? 413. Where are the Tubular Fibres found? What of their size ? 414. 
What are the Gray Fibres ? 415. Name the membranes of the Cerebro-spinal System. 
Describe the Dura Mater, Pia Mater and Arachnoid Membrane. 416. Give a further de- 
Bcription of the Dura Mater. 417. What is the Ependyma ? 

2 4:5. Physiology of the Nervous System. — 418. How is the Nervous System related to 
the compound nature of man? Observation. 419. What influence has this system on 
the different organs? 420. Speak of the connection between the Nervous Centres and 
the motor and sensitive fibres. Illustrate Reflex action. 421. Classify the Nervous Cen- 
tres. Observation. 422. What is the function of the Sympathetic Centres ? 423. What 
is said of their connections ? 424. Name and illustrate the diff'erent kinds of reflex ac- 
tion. Observation. 425. What is the office of the white substance of the spinal cord ? 

237 



238 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. - 

What that of the gray ? Observations. 426. Describe the Sensational Centres. Show 
that these centres have an independent reflex action. Can they acquire reflex action? 
Observations. 427. How are these centres excited to activity ? 428. What power 
have the Ideational Centres ? Observations. 429. What is the first way in which the 
independent reflex action in these centres is manifested ? Wliat the second ? Third ? 
Fourth? 430. Of what are these centres the seat? 431. What relation is there between 
the centre of idea and that of volition? 432. What is the highest energy of which these 
centres are capable? 433. Upon what does the power of the Will depend? 434. What 
relations to the Emotions does the Will sustain? Observations. 

g 46. Hygiene of the. Nervous System.— XZb. Why is a knowledge of the laws of the 
hygiene of this system important? 436. What agencies aflfect the health of this system? 
Name the requirements of its health and vigor. 437. What in addition to the features 
of parents do children inherit? May acquired h.abits be transmitted? Illustrations. 
438. State the second requirement of health and vigor. 439. Speak of the evil of 
breathing impure air. 440. What are the results of improper diet? Observations. 441. 
What will a want of physical exercise produce ? 442. By what may the nervous sys- 
tem be enfeebled? 443. Speak of the benefits of sleep and the amount needed. Ob- 
servation. 444. Name the tliird requirement of health. 445. Why is mental exei'cise 
essential ? Observation. 446. Where are seen the saddest eff'ects of an absence of stated 
employment? Observation. 447. To what should the amount of exercise be adapted? 
What is the present tendency in education? What training is essential? 448. State 
the efi"ect of too long continued activity. 449. Give the influence of recreation and 
amusement. Observations. 450. What is essential to the highest mental vigor? What 
is said of the use of the imagination? 451. What attention is it important to pay to the 
aesthetic faculty? 452. What is the moral faculty? Upon what depend the happiness 
and destiny of man? 453. Give Dr. Ray's remarks concerning the hygienic influence of 
a Harmonious Development of the Mental Powers. 

§ 47. Comparative Neurology. — 454. What is said of the Nervous System in Vertebrates 
and Invertebrates? 455. Compare the Nervous System in other Mammals with that iu 
man. 456. Describe that in Birds. 457. In Reptiles. 458. In Amphibians. 459. De- 
scribe the brain of the Fish. What is said of the Electric Eel? 460. Describe the 
Nervous System in Annulosa. 461. In Insects. In the Centipede. 462. Speak of the 
nervous system in Mollusca. 463. Describe the nervous system in Radiata. Observa- 
tions. 

UNIFIC REVIEW. 
[Compare 392-408 with 454-463.] 
Compare the Nervous System in man with that in the lower orders of animals. 

[Compare 409 and 410 with 9, 26, 27 and 30-32.] 
Give the composition of nervous tissue. Describe its first element. 

[Compare 411-414 with 28 and 29.] 
Describe the White and Gray Fibres. Where are they found? 

[Compare 415-417 with 17, 18, 30 and 31-33.] 
What tissues and what membranes belong to the Cerebro-Spiual System? What 
names do they assume there? 

[Compare 420-426 and 428 with 394, 395, 398, 402, 407 and 408.] 
Name the Nervous Centres. Give their functions. Speak of the Sympathetic System. 

[Compare 438-440 with 247, 266 and 372-374.] 
What is essential to the health of the Nervous System? What is said of food and air 
In this connection ? 

[Compare 441 with 183-196.] 
What can you say of the influence of physical exercise on the health of the Nervous 
System ? 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



239 




(See Fig, 161.) 



240 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



SYNTHETIC TOPICAL KEVIEW. 



Nervous Tissue. Forms, 

" " Arrangement, 

Ganglia, Nerves and Commissures, 
Spinal Cord, 
Medulla Oblongata, 
Cerebellum, Peduncles, 
Cerebrum, " 

Corpora Striata, 
Optici Thalami, 
Corpora Quadrigesima, 
Corpus Callosum, 
Ventricles, 

Cerebrum Hemispheres, 
Convolutions, 
Cerebro-Spinal Nerves, 
Cranial and Spinal Nerves, 
Sympathetic System. 
Nervous Tissue, Composition, 
Nerve-Cells, 
Nerve-Fibres, 
Membranes. 
Nervous System. 



Its relation to this nature, 
Man's compound nature. 
Its rank. 



Nervous Centres. Function, 
" " Classes, 

" " Arrangement, 

Organic Centres. Function, 
" " Connection, 

" " Modes of reflex action, 

" " Marked peculiarity, 

Reflex Centres. Function, 

'• " Acquired action, 

" " Importance of acquired action. 

Sensational Centres. Character and action, 

" " How excited to activity 

Ideational Centres. Function, . 
Different persons have diff"erent ideas. 
Ideational Centres. Independent reflex action, 
" " Emotional character, 

" " Volitional, 

Relation of the Emotions to the "Will, 
Influence of the body for good or evil, 
Language of the muscles. 
Agencies affecting the health. 
Natural heritage. 
Impure Air, influence of 
Improper Diet, " 
Poisons, " 

Physical Exercise, M^ant of 
Sleep, " 

Mental Exercise, 
Employment, 
Amount of exercise, 
Intense Activity, 
Recreation, 

Eacli faculty to be educated. 
The Esthetic faculty, 
The Moral " 

Vertebrates and Invertebrates, Nervous System, 
Mammals, " 

Birds, " 

Reptiles, " 

Amphibians, " 

Fishes, " 

Annulosa, " 

Insects, *' 

Mol lusca, " 

Radiata, ■ " 

Lower forms of Life, " 



§43. 
Anatomy of. 



§44. 
Histology of. 



§45. 
Physiology of. 



Hygiene, of. 



Comparative 
Niurolngy. 



Chap. XT. 

Nervous 
System. 



CHAPTER XII. 

THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 

Under this head are classed the Tongue, the Nose, the Eye, 
the Ear and the Tactile portions of the Nervous System. 

§ 48. Anatomy of the Organs of Special Sense. — The Organ, 
of Taste — Of Smell, The Coats of the Eye. The Humors of the Eye. 
Tlie Mtidcles of the Eye. The Protecting Organs. Classification of the 
Organs of Hearing, The External Ear. The Labyrinth. The In- 
ternal Ear. The Organs of Touch. Two Layers of Skin. The Epi- 
dermis. The Dermis. The Hairs. The Sebaceous Glands. Tlte 
Perspiratory Glands. The Nails, 

464. The organ of the Sense of Taste is the mucous 
membrane which covers the Tongue, especially the back part 

Fig. 165, 




Fig. 165 (Dalton). Diagram of the Tongue, with its sensitive nerves and papillse. 
1, Lingual branch of fifth pair. 2, Glosso-pharyngeal nerve. 

of this organ, and the palate. Upon the upper surface of the 
tongue the mucous membrane has various little eminences, 
called papillae, resembling the villi of the intestines. The 
principal of these are of a composite character, and present 
three varieties — the Circmnvallate, the Fungiform and the 

21 L 241 



242 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



Conical. The Circumvallate papillse are shaped like the 
letter V with the point turned downward, and are surrounded 
by an annular w'all-like elevation, whence their name. They 
are about a dozen in number, and are found upon the pos- 
terior part of the tongue. The Fungiform papillae are broad 

at the free extremity and 
narrow at the base, having 
something of the mush- 
room shape, whence their 
name. They are more 
numerous than the cir- 
cumvallate, and are scat- 
tered over the surface of 
the tongue, but are espe- 
cially numerous at and 
near the tip. The Conical 
papillse are smaller and 
more numerous than the 
others, and are found in 
the intervals between 
them, arranged in rows 
diverging from the median 
line of the tongue. All the 
above- described papillae 

upper jaw. 3, The tongue. 4, The lower jaw. and the SpaCCS between 

5, The fifth pair of nerves. 6, The first branch ^^^ COVCrcd with Simple 

of this nerve that passes to the eye. 9, 10, 11, . , . 

12, 13, 14, Divisions of this branch. 7, The second papillsC, COUlCal IP. foi'm. 

branch of the fifth pair of nerves is distributed 

to the teeth of the upper jaw. 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 

20, Divisions of this branch. 8, The third branch 

of the fifth pair that passes to the tongue and 

teeth of the lower jaw. 23, The division of this 

branch that passes to the tongue, called the 

gustatory. 24, The division that is distributed which ffive a brush-like 

to the teeth of the lower jaw. , j • i^i 

arrangement, aamirably 
adapted to the imbibition of liquids to be tasted. These hair- 
like appendages give the velvety character to the surface of 
the tongue, and upon them the furred condition of this organ 
depends. Minute blood-vessels and nerves pass up into these 




Fig. 166. The Distribution of the Fifth Pair 
OF Nerves.— 1, The orbit for the eye. 2, The 



From those surrounding 
the conical papillae, the 
squamose epithelium rises 
in hair-like appendages, 



THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 



243 



Fig. 167. 



papillae, thus giving a large extent of sensitive surface. 
(Fig. 166.) 

Nervous filaments are received from the fifth, ninth and 
twelfth pairs of nerves. The branch of the fifth, called the 
Giist'a-to-ry, is the nerve of taste and ordinary sensibility ; 
the twelfth, the Hypo-glossal, of voluntary motion. By means 
of the ninth, the Glosso-pharyngeal, the tongue is brought into 
association with the fauces, oesophagus and larynx. It is of 
obvious importance that these parts should act in concert; 
and this is eflfected by the distribution of this nerve. (Fig. 
166, §§ 49, 50.) 

465. The organ of the Sense of Smell is a part of the 
delicate mucous membrane lining the Nasal Passages. These 
passages extend from the opening of the nostrils in front to 
the pharynx behind ; they are high, vaulted and narrow, 
and separated from each other by a partition partly bony 
and partly cartilaginous. This double cavity is separated 
from the mouth by a bony 
floor (the hard palate), 
■which is continued back- 
w^ard to the root of the 
tongue by a fleshy curtain, 
called the soft palate. In 
ordinary positions of the 
mouth, this palate and the 
root of the tongue effect a 
closure between the mouth 
and the pharynx. Each 
of the outer walls of the 
nasal chamber has three 
thin, bony processes called 
turbinated bones, arranged 
one above another, like 
shelves. One of these pro- 
cesses is called cribriform; upon it rest the olfactory lobes, 
which send numerous filaments through the perforations to 
the mucous membrane of the two upper turbinated bones, 




Fig. 167. A Side View of the Passage op 
THE Nostrils, and the Distribution of the 
Olfactory Nerve. — 4, The olfactory nerve. 
5, The fine divisions of this nerve on the mem- 
brane of the nose. 6, A branch of the fifth 
pair of nerves. 



244 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



affording the special sense of smell ; the membrane of the 
lower bone receives a branch from the fifth nerve, which is 
endowed with common sensibility only ; the odor of cologne, 
for example, is distinguished by the olfactory nerve, and the 
pungency by the branch of the fifth nerve. (§§ 49, 50, 
Fig. 167.) 

466. The chief organ of the Sense of Sight is the Eye. 
The globe of the eye, or eyeball, is composed of three concen- 
tric envelopes, viz., the SderoiUca with the Cornea in front, 
the Cho'roidea with the Iris in front, and the Ret'ina, which 
is internal. These make up most of the solid part of the eye- 
ball, which is a hollow sphere filled with three fluid or semi- 
fluid substances — i\\Q Aqueous Humor, tho, Crystalline Lens and 
the Vitreous Humor. (Fig. 168.) 




Fig. 168. A Stction of the Globe of the Eye.— 1, The sclerotic coat. 2, The cornea. 
(This connects with the sclerotic coat by a beveled edge.) 3, The choroid coat. 6, 6, 
The iris. 7, The pupil. 8, The retina. 10, 11, 11, Chambers of the eye that contain the 
aqueous humor. 12, The crystalline lens. 13, The vitreous humor. 15, The optic nerve. 
16, The central artery of the eye. 

The Sclerotica or Sclerotic Coat invests the globe of the 
eye, excepting the part covered with the cornea in front. It 
is composed of white fibrous tissue arranged in many layers, 
which cross each other at right angles and form a tunic of 
great strength. It is white, glassy and opaque, and is com- 
monly called " the white of the eye." It has few blood-ves- 
sels, and seems destitute of nerves. (Fig. 168.) 



THE ORGAXS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 



245 



The Choroidea or Second Coat of the eye has some fibrous 
tissue like the sclerotica, but is chiefly composed of blood- 
vessels and pigment-cells. These cells give the coat an in- 
tense black color on the inside, but externally it is brown. 
It lines the sclerotica, and is connected with it by a delicate 
areolar tissue. It is perforated behind for the passage of the 
optic nerve, and terminates in front in the dl'iary ligament, 
in the anterior part of which the iris is inserted. (Fig. 168.) 

The Ieis occupies the opening of the choroidea in front, 
forms a partition between the anterior and the posterior cham- 
bers of the eye, and is pierced 

by a circular opening which ^^" ' * 

is called the Pupil. It is 
free except at its peripheal 
attachments, and floats free- 
ly in the aqueous humor. 
The posterior surface of the 
iris or uvea is thickly cov- 
ered with pigment, but the 
anterior surface gives the 
coloi' of the eye, so remark- 
ably and beautifully varied 
in different individuals, and 
presenting numerous blend- 
ed tints of black, brown, 
blue and gray. The iris is 
generally regarded as a 
modification of muscular 
tissue. It has two layers of 
fibres — one layer of radiating fibres, converging from the cir- 
cumference to the centre, the otherof circular fibres. (Fig. 169.) 

The Ciliary Processes consist of a number of minute 
triangular folds, formed apparently by the plaiting of the 
internal layer of the choroid coat toward its front part. 
Their bases are toward the pupil, and the free portion rests 
against the circumference of the crystalline lens. These pro- 
cesses are covered with pigment-cells. (Fig, 169.) 
21* 




Fig. 169. A Tiew of the Anterior Segment 

OF A TRAXSYERSE SECTION OF THE GlOBE OF THE 

Eye, seen from -within, — 1. The divided edge 
of the three coats — sclerotica, choroidea and 
retina. 2, The pupil. 3, The iris, the surface 
presented to riew ia this section being the 
uvea. 4, The ciliary processes. 5, The scaK 
loped anterior border of the retina. 



246 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



Fig. 170. 



The Retina is the inner coat of the eye formed by the 
expansion of the optic nerve upon the inner side of the cho- 
roid coat, but not extending so far forward. It ends at a 
short distance from the ciliary ligament, in a jagged edge, 
from which an exceedingly fine membrane extends to the 
ciliary processes. Its inner surface is bounded by an exceed- 
ingly delicate membrane which separates it from the vitreous 
humor. (Figs. 168, 169.) 

467. Of the three 
humors or liquid 
substances of the 
eye, the Aqueous 
or watery is situ- 
ated in the anteri- 
or portion of the 
organ, behind the 
cornea. It is an 
albuminous fluid, 
with an alkaline 
reaction and liquid 
like water. The 
iris is placed verti- 
cally in the fluid, 
the space between 
it and the cornea 
being the anterior 
chamber of the eye, 
and that between 
the iris and crys- 
talline lens behind, 
the posterior cham- 
her. The two chambers are lined by a membrane secreting 
the aqueous humor. (Fig. 168.) 

The Crystalline humor or lens is situated immediately 
behind the pupil, and is surrounded by the ciliary processes. 
It is invested by a transparent elastic membrane called the 
capsule of the lens. The humor is more convex on the pos- 




FiG. 170. Mdscles of the Eye. — 1, The palpebral ele- 
vator muscle. 2, The superior oblique. 3, The pulley 
through which the teudon of insertion plays. 4, Superior 
straight muscle. 6, Inferior straight muscle. 6, External 
straight muscle, 7, 8, Its two points of origin. 9, Inter- 
val through which pass the ocnlo-motor and abducent 
nerves. 10, Inferior oblique muscle. 11, Optic nerve. 12, 
Cut surface of the malar bone. 13, The nasal orifice. A, 
Ihe eyeball. 



THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 247 

terior than on the anterior surface. It is imbedded in the 
anterior part of the vitreous humor, from which it is sepa- 
rated by a thin membrane. The lens consists of thin layers 
like the coats of an onion. The external layer is soft, but 
each successive one increases in firmness. 

Observation,. — When the crystalline lens or its investing membrane is 
changed in structure, preventing the rays of light from passing to the 
retina, the affection is called a cataract 

468. The Vitreous Humor forms the principal bulk of 
the globe of the eye. It is an albuminous fluid resembling 
the aqueous humor, but is more dense, and if once discharged 
by disease or accident, it is irrecoverably lost, while the aque- 
ous humor may be lost and afterward restored. This humor 
is enclosed in a delicate membrane called the hy'aloid, which 
sends processes into the interior of the globe of the eye, form- 
ing the cells in which the humor is retained. 

469. The Muscles of the eye are six in number. They 
are attached at one extremity to the orbit behind the eye; at 
the other extremity they are inserted by broad, thin tendons 
to the sclerotic coat, near the junction of the cornea. The 
white, pearly appearance of the eye is caused by these ten- 
dons. (Fig. 170.) 

Observation. — If the externa I muscle is too short, the eye is turned 
out, producing the " wall eye;" if the internal mu^ile is contracted, the 
eye is turned inward toward the nose, and is called a "cross eye." 

470. The Protecting Organs of the eye are the Orbits, 
Eyebrows, Eyelids and Lach'rymal Apparatus. 

The Orbits are deep, bony sockets in which the globes of 
the eye are placed. The bottom of each orbit has a large 
perforation, giving passage to the optic nerve. These cavities 
are lined with a thick cushion of fat. 

The Eyebrows, forming the upper part of the boundary 
of the orbits, are two tegumentary prominences covered with 
coarse hair. 

The Eyelids are two movable curtains, having a delicate 
skin on the outside, muscular fibres beneath, and a narrow 
cartilage on their edges, which tends to preserve the shape 



248 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



of the lid. Internally, they are lined by a smooth mucous 
membrane, which is reflected on the front of the eye upon 
the sclerotica. This membrane is called the Conjimcti'va. 

On the internal surface of the cartilage there are found 
several small glands, which have the appearance of parallel 
strings of pearls. They open by minute apertures upon the 
edges of the lids. 

The edges of the eyelids are furnished with a triple row of 
hairs, called eyelashes, which curve upward from the upper 
lid, and downward from the lower. (Fig. 171.) 

Observation. — When the conjunctiva is infiamed, it sooaetimes de- 
posits a whitish material called lymph, which accounts for the films, 
opacities and white spots seen upon the eye after the inflammation has 
subsided. Not unfrequently granulations form on the inside of the lids, 
which should receive surgical treatment before the inflammation ex- 
tends over the eyeball. 

The Lachrymal Apparatus which secretes the tears 

consists of the Lachrymal 

Fig. 171. Gland with its ducts, Laeh- 

rymal Canals and the Nasal 

Duet. ' 

The Lachrymal Gland is 
situated at the outer and upper 
angle of the orbit, occupying a 
depression in the orbital plate 
of the frontal bone. Ten or 
twelve small ducts pass from 
this gland and open upon the 
upper eyelid, where they pour 
upon the conjunctiva the lach- 
rymal fiuid or tears. 

The Lachrymal Canals 
commence at the free borders 
of each eyelid, near the in- 
ternal angle of the eye, by 
two minute orifices, called 
"punc'ta lach'rymalia" (tear points). Each of these ducts 




Fig. 171. TiBW OF LACHRTMAt Gland 
AND Nasal Duct.— 1, The lachrymal 
gland. 2, Ducts leading from the lach- 
rymal gland to the upper eyelid. 3, 3, 
The puiicta lachrymal ia. 4, The nasal 
sac. 5, The termination of the nasal duct. 



THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 



249 



communicates with the sac at the upper part of the nasal 
duct. (Fig. 171.) 

The Nasal Duct is a short canal about three quarters 
of an inch in length, directed downward and backward to the 
nose, where it terminates by an expanded orifice. The tears 
secreted by the lachrymal gland are conveyed to the eye by 
the small ducts before described. They are then taken up by 
the puncta lachrymalia and carried by the lachrymal canals 
into the lachrymal sac, from which they are passed to the 
nasal cavities by the nasal duct. (Fig. 171, §§ 47, 48.) 




Fig. 172. A View of the Labyrinth Laid Open. — 1, 1, Cochlea. 2. 2, 3, 3, 3, Two 
canals that wind two and a half turns around a hollow axis (5). 7, Central portion of the 
labyrinth (vestibule). 8, Fenestra rotunda. 9, Fenestra ovalis, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 
18, The semicircular canals. Highly magnified. 

471. The Sense of Hearing does not strictly belong to 
one organ, but to several, which are grouped into three divi- 
sions — the External Ear, the Tym'panwn * and the Labyrinth 

. or Internal Ear. 

472. The Labyrinth is so called from its, remarkable 



* Gr., fumpanon, a drum. 



250 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

and varied configuration. It is divided into three portions — 
the Vestibule, the Semicircular Canals and the Coch'lea.^ 

473. The Vestibule is a small and somewhat triangular 
cavity about the size of a grain of wheat. It is placed almost 
vertically in the centre of the labyrinth, and is a kind of 
entrance-chamber or ante-room to the semicircular canals 
behind the cochlea in front. (Fig. 172.) 

474. The Semicircular Canals are three curved pas- 
sages, describing more than half a circle, and are about the 
twentieth of an inch in diameter. Two of them open into 
the vestibule at both extremities, and the third at one ex- 
tremity. Both the vestibule and the canals contain a trans- 
parent fluid like lymph, and in this fluid, without touching 
the walls of the cavity, floats a membranous labyrinth cor- 
responding in form to the bony one, but considerably smaller. 
It is a sheath or bag enlarged at the vestibule, and sending 
out prolongations into the semicircular canals on the one side 
and the cochlea on the other. It is filled with a lymph-like 
fluid of greater consistency than that in which it floats. The 
auditory nerve is distributed in the walls of this membranous 
labyrinth, and nervous filaments connect it with its bony 
counterpart, (Fig. 172.) 

475. In front of the vestibule is the Cochlea, so called 
from its resemblance to a snail-shell. It consists of a 
bony canal which winds around a hollow axis nearly three 
times, gradually decreasing in diameter, and thus forming 
a spiral cone. The interior of the canal is divided into two 
passages by a membranous partition, upon which the re- 
maining parts of the auditory nerve ramify. The passages 
are filled with lymph, and communicate with each other 
at the apex of the cone and at the base; one opens into 
the vestibule, called the Fenes'tra Ovalis; this small oval- 
shaped perforation is closed by a thin fibrous membrane, 
which prevents the escape of the fluid from the vestibule, 
and through it the sonorous vibrations pass to the labyrinth ; 

* Gr., Jcochlos, to twist. 



THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 251 

the other, the Fenestra Rotunda, opens into the Tympanum. 
(Fig. 172.) 

476. The Tympanum or middle ear is an irregular bony- 
cavity, larger than the vestibule and just outside of it. It is 
separated from the external ear by a thin, semi-transparent 
membrane of an oval shape. This is very closely fitted into 
a groove between the tympanum and the auditory canal. 
The tympanum is often called the Drum of the ear, and very 




Fig. 173. A Tie'W of all the Parts of the Ear. — 1, The canal that leads to the inter- 
nal ear. 2, The inembrana tympani. 3, 4, 5, The bones of the ear. 7, The central part 
of the labyrinth (vestibule). 8, 9, 10, The semi-circular canals. 11, 11, 11, 12, 12, 12, The 
channels of the cochlea. 13, The auditory nerve. 14, The opeuin^ from the middle ear 
or tympanum to the throat (Eustachian tube). 

appropriately, for the membrane of the tympanum is in con- 
tact with the atmosphere, whose sonorous vibrations beat upon 
it much like drumsticks upon the head of a drum. There 
are several openings into the tympanum, of which the largest 
is called the Eustachian tube, from the name of the first anatr 
omist who described it. It is a trumpet-shaped canal, some- 
what over an inch and a half long, extending from the fore 



252 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

part of the tympanum obliquely inward, forward and down- 
ward to the pharynx. The tube is lined with a ciliated 
epithelium continuous with that of the pharynx and tympa- 
num. In the tympanic cavity are three bones or ossicles, the 
smallest in the body, weighing only a few grains. From 
their resemblance to the articles, they have been named the 
Mallet, Anvil (attached to this bone is a little tubercle or 
orbiciclar bone, which is sometimes regarded as a separate 
ossicle) and Stirrup. The Mallet and Anvil articulate by a 
hinge joint, the Anvil and Stirrup by a ball-and-socket joint. 
(Fig. 173.) 

477. The External Ear lies outside the membrane of 
the tympanum. It is composed of the auditory canal and the 
part which projects from the head. The canal or External 
Mea'tus Audita' riush partly bony and partly cartilaginous, 
about one inch in length and narrower in the middle than at 
the extremities. Short, firm hairs are stretched across the 
tube, preventing the ingress of foreign bodies. Beneath the 
thin cuticle are small follicles which secrete the Ceru'men or 
wax. The part of the external ear outside the cavity has 
numerous prominences and ridges. 

478. The Sense of Touch has its seat in the Skin. This 
membrane covers the whole exterior of the body, and at the 
margins of the apertures is directly continuous with the mu- 
cous membrane, which last is an integument of greater deli- 
cacy, but has substantially the same composition, viz., a deep 
fibrous, sanguine, sensitive layer, a basement membrane and 
an epithelium, or superficial, insensible and bloodless layer. 
Thus the whole body, externally and internally, has a com- 
plete epithelial investment. 

479. The skin consists of two layers ; a superficial one, des- 
titute of nerves and blood-vessels, is called the Epidermis,'^ 
and a deeper layer, abundantly supplied with nerves, and 
highly vascular, called the Dermis or Cutis Vera (true skin). 
(Fig. 175.) 

*Gr,, epi, upon, and derma, skin. 



THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 



253 




480. The Epidermis consists of two layers, different in 
many respects, one called the Cuticle, the other the Soft Ejyi- 
dermis (and named by some physiologists the Rete Mucosum). 
The epidermis holds the same relation to the dermis that the 
epithelium does to the deeper layer of the mucous membrane. 
It varies in thickness from the thin, delicate membrane upon 
the internal flexions of the joints to the thickened covering 
of the soles of the feet. This variation is perceptible in in- 
fants before exercise can have had any influence. (Fig. 175.) 

During life the Epi- 

? ^ ^1 Fig. 174. 

DERMIS is constantly 

undergoing loss, throw- 
ing off the superficial 
epidermoid scales, 
which are constantly 
renewed by fresh cells 
originating on the sur- 
face of the true skin. 
These gradually under- 
go transformation from 
the spherical to the flat- 
tened shape as they ap- 
proach the surface of the cuticle. (Fig. 175.) 

The SOFT EPIDERMIC layer is the seat of the color of the 
skin. The difference between the blonde and brunette, the 
European and the African, lies only in the deep, newly-formed 
layers of the epidermis. In the whitest skin the cells of the 
epidermis always contain a slight amount of the pigmentary 
tint, which disappears from the cells as this soft layer is 
transformed into the cuticle. 

481. The Cuticle is a translucent, horn-like membrane. 
Its deeper surface is continuous with the soft epidermic layer, 
from which it is constantly renewed. Its free surface is in- 
cessantly wearing away or shed in small flakes, constituting 
scurf or dandruff. 

482. The Dermis or True Skin presents two very different 
surfaces, of which the external is called the Papillary layer, 



Fig. 174. Fragment of Dandruff from the 
Head. — 1, Portion of dandruff consisting of non- 
nucleated cells. 2, Several fragments, consisting 
of nucleated cells. 3, Isolated cells, some with and 
some without nuclei. 4, A cell more highly mag- 
nified, exhibiting granular contents and a nuclei. 



254 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



Fig. 175. 



the internal the Corium.'^ The dermis is made up of inter- 
lacing bundles of white areolar tissue, mixed with yellow 
elastic fibres. These are so interwoven as to constitute a 
firm, strong and flexible web. 
In the superficial part the web 
is so close as to resemble felt 
cloth. In the deepest layers 
the network is loose, and en- 
closes the hair-follicles with 
their sebaceous glands and 
small masses of fat. (Fig. 175.) 

483. The Papillary or 
outer layer of the dermis is 
provided with a multitude of 
little conical -shaped projec- 
tions. These are prolongations 
of the upper compact tissue of 
the corium into the newly- 
formed layer of the epidermis. 
They vary in number and de- 
gree of development in differ- 
ent parts of the body. The 
papillae are very numerous on 
the palm of the hand and on 
the free border of the lips. 

484. The Dermis is abun- 
dantly supplied with blood-ves- 
sels, lymphatics and nerves. 
Its general surface is covered 
with a close capillary network, 
from which looped vessels pro- 
ject and enter the papillae. 

The lymphatics also form a close network on the surface. 
The nerves pass upward from the subcutaneous areolar tissue, 
and form, as they approach the surface, minute plexuses, 




Fig. 175. Vertical Section of the 
Skin of the Forefinger across Two 
OF THE Ridges of the Surface. Highly 
magnified. 1, Dermis, composed of an 
intertexture of bundles of fibrous tissue. 
2, Epidermis. 3, Its cuticle. 4, Its soft 
layer. 5, Subcutaneous connective and 
adipose tissue. 6, Tactile papillae. 7, 
Sweat glands. 8, Duct. 9, Spiral passage 
from the latter through the epidermis. 
10, Termination of the passage on the 
summit of ridge. 



■^ Gr., chorion, skin. 



THE OEGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 



255 



from which the nerve-fibres are given off. Some of these 
fibres are lost in the compact tissue of the dermis ; others 
end, perhaps, in loops ; and many pass into certain of the 
papillae (for it is said that some of these do not receive nerve- 
fibres). In the papillae these fibres end in loops, or, as in the 
fingers, the sole of the foot, and 
perhaps on the red margin of the 
lips and the point of the tongue, 
they appear to terminate in small 
oval, condensed bodies, called 
tactile corpuscles, situated in the 
centre of the papillae. In any 
case, it is supposed that the nerve- 
fibre turns back to rejoin some 
nerve-cell in the nervous centres. 
The network of nerves imbedded 
in the upper porous layer of the 
true skin is derived from nerves 
which take their winding course 
through the fat, distended open- 
ings of the Corium. (Fig. 175.) 
485. The minute depressions 
from which the hairs of the skin 
emerge are called the Hair-fol- 
licles or sacs. They are buried 
in the corium. At the bottom 
of the follicle is a more or less 
elevated portion of the dermis, 
often forming a distinct papilla, 
which is destitute of cuticle. The 
root of the hair is composed of 
soft, pale and somewhat com- 
pressed nucleated cells ; it is 
adherent to the lining of the follicle or root-sheath. When a 
hair is plucked out, the sheath adheres to it, but the vascular 
papilla at the bottom of the follicle remains, and a new hair 
is generated upon it. If the papilla is destroyed, no new hair 




Fig. 176. Diagram of Structure of 
THE Root of a Hair within its Fol- 
licle.— 1, Hair papilla. 2, Capillary 
vessel. 3, Nerve-fibres. 4, Fibrous 
wall of the hair-follicle. 5, Basement 
membrane. 6, Soft epidermic lining 
of the follicle. 7, Its elastic cuticnlar 
layer. 8, Cuticle of the hair. 9, Cor- 
tical substance. 10, Medullary sub- 
stance. 11, Bulb of the hair, composed 
of soft polyhedral cells. 12, Transition 
of the latter into the cortical sub- 
stance, medullary substance and cuti- 
cle of the hair. 



256 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYCxIENE. 



Fig. 177. 



can be formed. All these papillae, except those of the finest 
hairs, probably receive nervous fibrils. The part of the hair 
projecting above the surface is called the shaft. The shaft is 
usually cylindrical, but sometimes flattened. It consists of 
an outer part, called the cortex, composed of a single layer 
of imbricated scales whose edges are directed toward the point 
of the hair. Beneath the cortex is 
' the so-called fibrous part of the hair, 
which constitutes its bulk, and con- 
sists of fusiform cells clustered into 
flattened fibres, running longitudi- 
nally and intermixed with pigment 
granules. Lastly, the very deepest 
cells, occupying the centre of the 
shaft and constituting the pith, are 
not elongated, but polyhedral and 
loosely connected together, and 
containing chiefly pigment or fat 
granules. (Fig. 176.) 

486. Each hair-follicle receives, 
in nearly all cases, the ducts of two 
Sebaceous or Oil- Glands, which are 
situated in the dermis. They are 
found only where hairs exist. Each 
gland is a flask-shaped body, com- 
posed of from five to twenty little 
sacs, clustered around and leading 
into a common duct. These glands 
are lined by a fine epithelium, and 
the unctuous secretion first anoints 
the hair-bulb, and then oozes out 
upon the neighboring surface of 
the cuticle. The sebaceous glands are of considerable size. 
(Figs. 176, 178.) 

487. Immediately beneath the skin, over the whole surface 
of the body, there are a multitude of little glandular bodies, 
called Perspiratory or Sweat Glands. Each gland consists of 



Fig. 177. Portion of a Hair 
FROM THE Outer Part of the 
Thigh. Magnified., 1, Shaft of 
the hair covered with transverse 
markings indicating the project- 
ing edges of the cuticular, imbri- 
cated scales. 2, Cortical substance 
at the end of the hair, broken iip 
into coarse fibres, as the result of 
friction of the clothing. 



THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 



257 



a minute, cylindrical, spiral duct, which passes inward through 
the epidermis, and terminates in a globular coil, in the deeper 
meshes of the true skin. The opening of the duct upon the 
cuticle is called the " pore." This aperture is oblique in 
direction, and possesses all the advantages of a valvular open- 
ing, preventing the ingress of foreign injurious substances to 
the interior of the duct or gland. It is estimated that six 
thousand glands exist on every square inch of surface, and 
the combined length of the glandular tubing in the body is 
between two and three miles. These glands, coming in con- 

FiG. 178. 




Tig. 178. Oil-Glands and Ducts, magnified thirty-eight diameters. 1, A, Oil-gland 
from the scalp; B, Its duct. 2, A, Two glands from the skin of the nose; B, Common 
duct. 3, A, Oil-gland from the nose; B, The duct filled with the peculiar animalculae 
of the oily substance ; the heads are directed inward. 4, A, Cluster of oil-glands around 
the shaft of the hair (C) ; B, Ducts. 



tact with the capillary blood-vessels, receive a watery fluid 
(the perspiration) from the blood. The formation of per- 
spiration is constant, but usually evaporation takes place as 
fast as it reaches the surface. This is called the " insensible 
transpiration" of the skin. (Figs. 178, 175.) 

488. The Nails are horny appendages of the skin, and 
correspond with the hoofs and claws of animals. They are 
flexible, translucent plates continuous with the epidermis, 
22* 



258 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



Fig. 179. 




and rest on the depressed surface of the dermis, called the 
matrix or bed. By maceration 
or severe scalding, even in life, 
the nail is detached with the 
epidermis. 

The horny layer of the nail 
answers to the cuticle ; it is com- 
posed of numerous layers of flat- 
tened, nucleated cells or scales, 
while the soft layer corresponds 
with the deep parts of the epi- 
dermis, and is made up of deli- 
cate polyhedral, nucleated cells. 
The nails increase in length by the constant addition of cells 
at the root ; they grow in thickness by the formation of cells 
on the under surface. This double development explains 
why nails are thickest at their most convex portion. (Fig. 
179.) 



Fig. 179. A Section of the End of 
THE Finger and Nail. — 4, Section of 
the last bone of the finger. 5, Fat, 
forming the cushion at the end of the 
finger. 2, The nail. 1, 1, The cuticle 
continued under and around the root 
of the nail at 3, 3, 3. 



§ 40. Physiology of the Organs of SPEciAii Sense. — Primary 

Use of the Sense of Taste — Of Smell. Some of the Laws of Light. The 
Adaptation of the Eye to the Laws of Light. Cause of Short-sighted- 
ness — Of Long-sightedness — Defect remedied. Functions of the different 
Coats of the Eye. The Accessory Parts of the Eye. Hearing. Func- 
tio7is of the External Ear — Auditory Canal — Eustachian Tube — Cochlea 
and Semi-circular Canals. Sounds reach the Fluid of the Labyrinth by 
two Paths. Special Organ of the Sense of Touch. Functions of the 
Skin. Use of the Epidermis — Of the Cuticle — Of Cutaneous Papillae. 
Vessels of the Corium. Function of the Oil-glands. Uses of Per- 
spiration. 

489. The primary use of the Sense of Taste is to guide 
animals in the selection of food, that noxious articles may not 
be introduced into the stomach. In man this sense has been 
so abused and perverted by the introduction of condiments 
and the endless admixture of different articles of food, that 
the natural action seems to have been almost entirely super- 
seded by acquired taste. This sense becomes very acute by 
cultivation, as may be seen in those persons whose business it 



THE OEGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 259 

is to judge of the qualities of certain articles by the taste, as 
tasters of wine, tea, etc. The acuteness of taste, however, 
varies in different persons according to the sapid bodies them- 
selves. (§§ 48, 50.) 

Observation. — Hard, insoluble substances have no taste; hence, what- 
ever is tasted must be in the fluid form or in solution in some other 
liquid. For this reason the various movements of the tongue, to facil- 
itate actual contact of substances to be tasted with the lining membrane 
of the mouth and fauces, show that we should eat slowly, dissolve the 
food and mingle it with the saliva, as not only a source of physical en- 
joyment but essential to health. 

490. In man the Sense of Smell is one of inferior im- 
portance. It furnishes the mind with but few ideas, and 
these are mostly subservient to his physical well-being. This 
sense leads us to avoid disagreeable odors or putrescent food, 
and, when acute, to escape the injurious effects of many vapors 
which endanger health. (§§ 48, 49.) 

Observation. — The sense of smell is possessed in greater perfection by 
some of the lower animals than by man. Odors are perceived by them 
that are imperceptible to us. A dog will follow his master's footsteps 
through crowded streets, distinguishing their odor from different trav- 
elers. Some animals when disturbed emit a disagreeable odor, which 
serves as a means of defence. 

491. The Structure of the Eye is beautifully adapted 
to the laws of light, a few of which it is necessary for us to 
notice. 

When light passes through a medium of unvarying density^ 
the rays are in straight lines, but when it passes from a me- 
dium of one density into another of different density, they 
are refracted or bent from a straight course unless striking 
the medium perpendicularly, when they are unchanged. 
When light passes from one medium to another having a 
convex or concave surface instead of a flat surface, a great 
degree of refraction is produced, and the greater the curva- 
ture, the greater will be the amount of refraction. (§§ 48, 50.) 
Illustration L — Fit a convex lens in an opening of the shutter of a 
darkened room ; the rays of light will cross each other in the lens, and 
an inverted image of any^ object outside, as a tree or house, will be 



260 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

reflected upon a screen placed in the room at a certain distance in front 
of tiie lens. The exact point where the image is most distinct is called 
the focus of the lens, and the distance from the lens to the image the focal 
distance. Now, in the eye the pigment of the choroid coat gives the 
darkened room, the retina the screen, the pupil is the opening in the 
shutter, and the three humors are the curved lenses. The rays of light 
from any object cross each other, and an inverted image is formed on 
the retina. 

492. The shape of the cornea and aqueous humors is con- 
vexo-concave, the vitreous humor is concavo-convex, while 
the crystalline humor or lens is convexo-convex. It may at 
first seem that only one lens is necessary, but light is com- 
posed of three primary colors which are not equally refracted 
by the same lens ; hence, there would be upon the edges of any 
single lens prismatic colors, which would interfere with the 
distinctness of the image. This is obviated by the adapta- 
tion of the curvatures of the lenses to the different colors. 

2. — Suppose our object outside the darkened room to be at that 
distance from the lens which will give a distinct image upon the 
screen ; now, if the object approach the lens, the image will be indis- 
tinct unless a more convex lens be substituted for the first, or the dis- 
tance between the lens and screen be increased. If the object recede, 
the image will be indistinct unless a less convex lens be substituted for 
the first, or the distance be lessened between the lens and screen. 

493. By a very nice adjustment the eye is able to change the 
convexity of its lenses, and also to vary the focal distances, 
thereby adapting it to a wide range of vision. This is ac- 
complished by the ciliary ligament and the muscular fibres 
connected with the ciliary processes, which change the curv- 
ature of the crystalline lens and the cornea by compression 
at the circumference, and at the same time throw the lens 
forward, increasing the distance between it and the retina. 
The iris also aids in adapting the eye to different distances. 
It contracts when viewing a near object and dilates when 
viewing one more remote. 

Observation. — When the cornea or crystalline lens is too convex or 
the latter is too far from the retina, short-sightedness is produced, and 
the defect is measurably remedied by the use of concave glasses ; when 



THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 261 

there is too little convexity, long-sightedness is the result, and convex 
glasses should be used. In old age, the humors being deficient in 
quantity, cause the flattening of the convex parts, hence the need of 
convex glasses. In the selection of glasses the lens for each eye should 
be chosen separately, as the foci of the two eyes do not usually exactly 
correspond ; therefore a lens that will suit one eye may strain the other. 

494. The Sclerotic Coat gives form to the eye, and serves for 
the attachment of the muscles which move the eye in various 
directions. The movements of the two eyeballs are always 
simultaneous and harmonious, but sometimes not symmetrical. 
The function of the pigment of the choroid coat is to absorb 
all the luminous rays not necessary for vision. 

Illustration, — "If the sclerotic and choroid coats be carefully dissected 
off from the posterior part of the eye of an ox or any other large quad- 
ruped, leaving only the retina, and the eye so prepared be placed in a 
hole in a window-shutter, in a darkened room, with the cornea on the 
outside, all the illuminated objects of the external scene will be beauti- 
fully depicted, in an inverted position, on the retina. Few spectacles 
are more calculated to raise our admiration than this delicate picture 
which Nature has, with such exquisite art and with the finest touches 
of her pencil, spread over the smooth canvas of the expansion of the 
optic nerve — a picture which, though scarcely occupying a space of 
half an inch in diameter, contains the delineation of a boundless scene 
of earth and sky, full of all kinds of objects, some at rest and others in 
motion, yet all accurately represented as to their forms, colors and posi- 
tion, and followed in all their changes without the least interference, 
irregularity or confusion." 

495. The Accessory- Parts of the Eye are of two kinds; the 
one designed to protect the eyeball, the other to move it and 
give the required direction to fulfill its office. To enable the 
eye to move in all directions without friction, it is placed on 
a cushion of fat which lines the bony orbit, thus protecting 
the globe on all sides except in front; here are the Eyelids, 
which by their alternate movement of depression and eleva- 
tion spread over the front of the eyeball a watery secretion, 
by which its surface is constantly bathed, and its brilliancy 
and transparency kept unimpaired. 

By the contraction of a small ring-like muscle (the Orbicu- 
laris) the eyelids quickly draw together, and as they instantly 



262 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

separate, the secretion from the lachrymal gland is diffused 
over the conjunctiva. During life this muscle is ever active 
and watchful for the safety of the eye. When cinders or 
dust get under the eyelids, it irritates the conjunctiva, and 
the movements of winking are very rapid. A viscid fluid is 
spread along the margin of the lid, which prevents the tears 
running over the eyelid. 

The Cilia or Eyelashes so interlace that protection is given 
the eye from light substances floating in the air. The Eye- 
brows assist in shading the eyes when exposed to strong light, 
and they lend expression to some emotions of the mind. 

496. Hearing is that function by which we obtain a 
knowledge of the vibratory motions of bodies, which consti- - 
tute sounds. Independent of the sense of hearing, sound, as 
sound, has no existence in nature. 

497. The External Ear collects the waves of sound and re- 
flects them on the membrane of the tympanum ; this mem- 
brane facilitates their transmission to the chain of bones in 
the tympanum, to the walls of the cavity and to the air it 
contains ; from the stirrup to the oval window ; from this 
membrane the vibrations are communicated to the fluid of 
the labyrinth, until finally they are received by the expan- 
sion of the auditory nerve, by which the sensation is commu- 
nicated to the brain. 

498. T\\Q function of the Auditory Canal is to receive and 
conduct sonorous vibrations to the membrane of the tympa- 
num. This membrane is admirably adapted for the recep- 
tion of atmospheric sound-waves. In hearing, the air in the 
tympanic cavity plays an important part ; the design of the 
Eustachian tube is evidently to allow of equal atmospheric 
pressure upon both sides of the membrana tympani. The 
complicated communications of the internal ear contain the 
highly important parts of the organ of hearing. The Vesti- 
bule is the part essential to the simplest exercise of this sense. 
The Cochlea and Semicircular canals, or rather their contained 
membranous canals, receive vibrations through the mixed 
membranous and bony tympanic apparatus. It is asserted by 



THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 263 

some physiologists that sound is communicated through the 
cranial bones ; the transmission, however, through the solid 
bones of the head, if it exists, is effected with difficulty. 

499. By this sense, therefore, we distinguish the quality, 
intensity, pitch, duration and direction of sonorous impulses. 
The delicacy with which these distinctions are appreciated 
varies in different individuals. The complication and finish 
of the auditory apparatus, and the perfection and delicacy 
of its action, are second only to those of vision. 

500. The Sense of Touch, though common to all parts 
of the Skin and adjoining mucous membranes, has for its 
special organ the hand. It is most admirably adapted to its 
office, by reason of the number, size, arrangement, structure 
and abundant nervous supply of its papillae. 

Observation. — In some animals, the tongue, in others, feelers, tenta- 
cula or a prolongation of the nose are the instruments of touch. 

501. The functions of the Skin are threefold : 1st, As a 
Protecting membrane ; 2d, As a Medium for the distribution 
of the tactile nerve-filaments ; and 3d, As an Eliminating 
organ. Investing as it does the entire surface of the body, 
following all its curves and prominences, arranged in layers 
differing in function, structure and vitality, the skin becomes 
an envelope of harmonious unity in appointment and end. 

502. The uses of the Epidermis are various. It serves to 
cover and protect the delicate sensitive parts beneath it ; to 
prevent the too rapid escape of heat; and to restrain the 
evaporation of the fluids of the skin and its appendages, at 
the same time that it furnishes a medium through which 
these secretions can reach the surface of the body. 

Observation. — The cuticle is constantly destroyed and replaced, as is 
proved by the disappearance from the skin of such stains as those pro- 
duced by nitrate of silver, or the scales thrown off after some acute dis- 
eases, as scarlatina. The restoration of the cuticle is observed after the 
process of vesication by blisters, and in consequence of burns and scalds. 
By these means large patches of cuticle are removed ; but they are re- 
newed in short time, under favorable circumstances. The pigmentary 
substance is also capable of rapid reproduction. 



264 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

503. In the Coriiun or internal layer of the skin resides 
vitality. Here the arteries of the skin penetrate from be- 
neath, and end in a capillary network ; the veins emerging 
from the skin are more numerous and much larger than the 
arteries. The skin is abundantly supplied with nerves, but 
their mode of termination has not been accurately ascer- 
tained. 

504. The surface of the skin possesses the power of absorb- 
ing both liquids and vapors. The principal, if not sole, 
agents of this function on the surface of the body are the 
cutaneous Lymphatic vessels, which are active in proportion 
to the tenuity or absence of the cuticle. To a slight extent 
the skin is a respiratory membrane in man, giving off car- 
bonic gas and actually absorbing oxygen. 

505. The Sebaceous matter from the Oil-glands anoints the 
hairs with oil in their progress of growth from the skin, and 
also imbues the cuticle, by which it is rendered repellent of 
water. The oiliness of the surface of the skin, occasioned by 
this material, permits the ready adhesion of dust and dirt, 
and necessitates the use of soap for the easy removal of its 
excess. This oily product often becomes inspiss^ed and dis- 
tends the glands, most frequently in the face, and especially 
on the nose, and at the mouths of the ducts it becomes 
mixed with dust. When pressed out it assumes the spiral 
form of the duct ; hence it is commonly taken for a worm. 
In the healthiest individuals the sebaceous matter contains a 
curious parasite, called the "pimple mite." 

506. The uses of the Perspiration or sweat are twofold : 
1st, To free the system of a certain quantity of water ; and 
2d, To eliminate from the body certain special products of 
chemical changes. 

The quantity of perspiration exhaled by different parts of 
the body differs widely. Its general quantity is influenced 
both by intrinsic and extrinsic conditions; thus, it is aug- 
mented by increased vascularity of the skin, by a higher 
temperature of the body, by a quicker circulation, and there- 
fore by exercise and effort generally. Perspiration may also 



THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 265 

be induced by additional covering of the body, and also by 
peculiar conditions of the nervous system. 

507. Of the external conditions which modify the quantity 
of perspiration, the condition of the atmosphere is most im- 
portant. Thus, in warm air the activity of the cutaneous 
circulation is increased, which increases the perspiration, 
whilst cold air has the opposite effect; again, dry air in- 
creases the perspiration, whilst damp air diminishes it. 
Simple warmth acts by increasing the vascular action 
through the skin, whilst dryness operates by maintaining a 
constant evaporation from this membrane; on the other 
hand, cold diminishes the vascularity of the skin, and damp- 
ness of the air impedes evaporation. The combination of 
moisture with heat, however, increases the exhalation by the 
skin, which then appears in large drops. Large quantities 
of warm drinks also increase perspiration. 

Observation. — The skin is said to regulate the quantity of fluid given 
off by the kidneys and the quantity of fluid left in reserve in the blood 
and soft tissues generally, but the kidneys should rather be regarded 
as the true regulators. Observation shows that in cold weather the 
skin exhales less and the kidneys excrete more fluid, while in warm 
weather the skin eliminates more and the kidneys less. 

508. The use of the non-vascular and insensible outgrowth 
of the epidermis, the Hair, is protection ; and the function 
of the Nails is not only protection, but support to the yield- 
ing softness of the flesh at the finger-tips. When they reach 
exactly to the extremities of the fingers, they then fulfill the 
intention for which they were made, by enabling the fingers 
to hold both small and hard substances, and to tear and peel 
off skins of vegetables or animals. They are called into action 
where nicety of execution is required in art. 

23 M 



266 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

§ 50. Hygiene of the Organs of Special Sense. — Perversion of 
the Sense of Taste — Of Smell. How the Eye should be Used. Causes 
of Amaurosis. The Effect of Continued Oblique Position of the Eye- 
Viewing Objects at Different Distances. Bathing the Eye — Pemoval 
of Dust. Causes of Defective Hearing. Parts Essential to Hearing. 
Clothing. Kind of Material for Clothing. Class of Persons that need 
more Clothing. Cleanliness of Clothing. Bathing — Modes of Bathing 
— Time for Baths — General Mules for Bathing — Water a Curative 
Agent. Air Beneficial to the Skin. Effect of Light on the Skin. 

509. The Sense of Taste becomes perverted by the im- 
moderate use of stimulants and condiments. These indul- 
gences lessen the sensibility of the nerve. In children this 
sense is usually acute, and their preference is for food of the 
mildest character. 

Observation. — This sense is varied more than any other by the refine- 
ments of social life ; thus, the Indian's like or dislike regarding par- 
ticular articles of food generally extends to every individual of the tribe, 
but among civilized men no two persons are alike in all their tastes. 

510. The Sense of Smell may become impaired by being 
frequently and powerfully stimulated by pungent articles, as 
" smelling salts ;" also catarrh, or any influence that thickens 
the mucous membrane or renders it dry, diminishes the sensi- 
bility of the nerve of smell. Hence, the sense becomes very 
obtuse to persons addicted to the pernicious habit of " snuflf*- 
takiug." 

511. The Eye is a delicate organ, requiring care to preserve 
it in health; like other organs of the body, it should be exer- 
cised and then rested. The observance of this rule is par- 
ticularly needful to those whose eyes are predisposed to 
inflammation. If the eye be used too long at one time, it 
becomes wearied and the power of vision diminished. On 
the contrary, if not called into exercise, its functions are en- 
feebled or permanently impaired. 

512. Sudden transitions of light should be avoided. The iris 
enlarges or contracts according to the degree of light, but the 
change is not instantaneous. Hence the imperfect vision in 
passing from a strong to a dim light ; an overwhelming sensa- 
tion is experienced when passing from a dimly-lighted apart- 



THE OEGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 267 

ment to one brilliantly illuminated. A common cause of 
Amaurosis, or paralysis of the retina, is using the eye for a 
long time in a very intense light. 

513. Long-continued oblique position of the eye should he 
avoided, or it may produce an unnatural contraction of the 
muscles called into action, producing squinting or strabismus. 

Observation. — The "vision of a cross eye is always defective, as only 
one eye is used in viewing the object toward which the attention is 
directed. The defect is remedied by a surgical operation. Children 
should not be allowed, to imitate the "cross eye," as what is intended 
to be but temporary may become permanent. 

514. The eye of the child should he traiyied to view ohjects at 
different distances. The ciliary muscles are as capable of 
education as any others, and may be made to act very effi- 
ciently in adapting the lenses of the eye to view near or re- 
mote objects. Care on the part of the instructor and parent 
regarding the distance from the eye at which the child 
should hold his book or work would save many cases of de- 
fective vision. 

Observation 1 . — Bathing the eye in tepid or cold water is beneficial, pro- 
vided the eye be gently wiped and usually toward the inner angle ; 
also to remove the secretion from the lachrymal gland that sometimes 
collects at this angle, as it contains saline matter. 

2. — Particles of dust or cinders should be removed from the eye by 
means of soft linen or silk. If the substance is concealed beneath the 
upper lid, take a smooth rod, like a knitting needle, place it over the 
upper lid in contact with and just under the edge of the orbit; hold it 
firmly by means of the lashes, turn the lid gently back over the needle, 
and remove the intrusive substance. If unsuccessful, too many attempts 
should not be made, as inflammation may be induced, but consult a 
surgeon immediately. 

515. l^h.Q Sense of Hearing, like the other senses, is capable 
of great improvement. By cultivation, the blind are able to 
judge with great accuracy of the distance of bodies in motion, 
and even of the height of buildings. The Indian will distin- 
guish sounds inaudible to the untrained ear. 

516. Hearing may he imjjaired by the destruction of the 
membrane of the tympanum. The obstruction of the Eusta- 



268 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

chiaii tube is not unfrequently the cause of defective hearing. 
By its closure, the vibratory effect of the air within the tym- 
panum is diminished in the same manner as in the closure 
of the side of a drum. Enlarged tonsils, inflammation of the 
fauces and nasal passages, often attend and follow colds and 
attacks of scarlet fever, etc. For such deafness, remedial 
means should be directed by a skillful physician. 

Observation. — The nostrums for the cure of deafness are usually of an 
oily character, and may be useful in cases of defective hearing caused 
by an accumulation of wax in the external canal of the ear ; but a few 
drops of any animal oil will serve the purpose as efficiently. 

517. In hearing, the integrity of the drum of the ear is not 
absolutely essential for the due performance of the function. 
The loss of the small bones does not necessarily cause deafness 
unless the stirrup is diseased; but if the auditory nerve or 
membranous vestibule becomes diseased, there is no remedial 
agent for the loss of hearing. 

518. The Hygiene of the Skin, the chief organ of the Sense 
of Touch, holds important relation to the general health of 
the body. To maintain its healthy action in every part, 
attention must be given to Clothing, Bathing, Light and Air. 

519. Clothing is chiefly useful in preventing the escape 
of too much heat from the body, and in protecting the body 
from exposure to the evil effects of a varying temperature of 
the atmosphere. In selecting and applying clothing, the fol- 
lowing should be observed : 

520. The material for clothing should he a bad conductor of 
heat. As air is a non-conductor, material should be chosen 
which is capable of retaining much air in its meshes, and as 
moisture increases the conducting power, the material should 
not be such as will absorb or retain moisture. 

Observation. — Furs retain much air in their meshes and absorb 
scarcely any moisture, and consequently are well adapted to those sub- 
ject to the great exposures of very cold climates. Woolen cloth, next to 
furs and eider down, retains the most air and absorbs the least moisture ; 
hence it is a good article of apparel for all persons, unless too irritable 
to an over-sensitive skin. In that case the flannel may be lined with 
cotton, or silk may be substituted. When of sufficient body or thick- 



THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 269 

ness, silk is a good article for inner clothing, excepting when it pro- 
duces too much disturbance of the electricity of the system. Next to 
these articles, cotton is well adapted for garments worn next the skin. 
Linen should never be worn by persons in any way enfeebled, even in 
warm weather or in hot climates. It is a good conductor of heat and 
readily absorbs moisture ; hence, with such covering, the body is sur- 
rounded by a layer of moisture instead of air. 

521. The clothing should be both porous and loosely fitted. 
The necessity of porous clothing is seen in the wearing of 
India-rubber overshoes. In a short time the hose and under- 
boot become damp from retained perspiration. The residual 
matter thus left in contact with the skin is reconveyed into 
the system by absorption, causing headache and other dis- 
eases. Unimpeded transpiration, and a layer of air secured 
by loose clothing, enable the skin to imbibe oxygen, which 
gives it tone and vigor. 

Observation. — As the design of additional clothing is to enclose a 
series of strata of warm air, we should, in going from a warm room 
into cold air, put on our extra covering some time previous to going 
out, that the layers of air which we carry with us may be warmed by 
the heat of the room, and not borrowed from the heat of the body. 

522. The clothing must be suited to the state of the atmosphere 
and to the condition of the individual. Sudden changes of 
temperature should be regarded ; but it is usually unsafe to 
make changes from thick to thin clothing, excepting in the 
morning, when the vital powers are in full play. The even- 
ing usually demands an extra garment, as the atmosphere is 
more cool and damp, and we have also less vital energy than 
in the early part of the day. 

Observation. — Many a young lady has laid the foundation of a fatal 
disease by exchanging the thick dress, warm hose and shoes for the 
flimsy fabric, thin hose and shoes which are considered suitable for the 
ball-room or party. All sudden changes of this kind are attended with 
hazard, which is proportionate to the weakness or exhaustion of the 
system when the change is made. 

523. The child and the aged person require more clothing 
than the vigorous person of middle age. Judging from ob- 
servation, we should infer that children needed less clothing 

23* 



270 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

than adults. The exposure to which the vain and thoughtless 
mother subjects her child very frequently lays the foundation 
for future disease. Those who have outlived the energies of 
adult life also need special care regarding a proper amount 
of clothing. 

Observation. — The system of "hardening" children, of which we some- 
times bear^ is as inhuman as it is unprofitable. To make the child 
robust and active, he must have nutritious food at stated hours, free 
exercise in the open air, and be guarded from the cold by proper 
apparel. 

524. When a vital organ is diseased, more clothing is needed. 
In consumption, dyspepsia, and even headache, the skin 
usually is pale and the extremities cold, because less heat is 
generated. Persons suffering from these complaints need 
more clothing than those with healthy organs. 

525. Persons of active habits need less clothing than those of 
sedentary employment. Exercise increases the circulation of 
the blood, consequently the vital activities become more 
energetic, and more heat is produced. We need less clothing 
when walking than when riding. 

526. The clothing should be kept clean. Some portion of 
the transpired fluids of the body must necessarily be absorbed 
by the clothing; hence, warmth, cleanliness and health re- 
quire that it should be frequently changed and thoroughly 
washed. Under-garments worn through the day should not 
be worn through the night, nor the reverse. When taken from 
the body, such garments should not be hung in the closet or 
put into the drawer, but exposed to a current of fresh air. 

The covering of beds should be thoroughly aired every 
morning, and frequently renewed. 

527. Damp clothing is injurious. All articles from the 
laundry should be well aired before being worn. When the 
clothing is wet by accident or exposure, it should be changed 
immediately, unless the person is exercising so vigorously as 
to prevent the slightest chill. When the exercise ceases, the 
body should be rubbed with a dry crash towel till a thorough 
reaction takes place. 



i 



THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 271 

Beds and bedding that have not been used for some weeks 
become damp, and should be dried before use. A hostess 
cannot be guilty of a more inhospitable act than that of 
sending her guest to her fine guest-chamber, to occupy a bed 
which has been long unused. 

528. Bathing is indispensable to sound health as well as 
to cleanliness. The skin soon becomes covered with a mix- 
ture of perspirable matter, oil and dust, which, if allowed to 
remain, interferes with the action of the skin as an excretory 
organ. This increases the action of the lungs, kidneys, liver, 
etc., which take upon themselves the excretory work which 
the skin fails to perform. By overwork they soon become 
diseased, and if it is continued, the result will be consumption 
and other diseases of the vital organs. Again, obstruction 
of the pores will prevent respiration through the skin, and 
deprive the blood of one source of its oxygen and one outlet 
of its carbopic acid. 

529. Bathing gives tone and vigor to the internal organs. 
When cool water is applied to the body, the skin instantly 
shrinks and the whole of its tissue contracts. This contrac- 
tion diminishes the capacity of the blood-vessels, and a por- 
tion of the blood is thrown upon the internal organs. The 
nervous system is stimulated, and communicates its stimulus 
to the whole system. This causes a more energetic action of 
the heart and blood-vessels, and a consequent rush of blood 
back to the skin. This is the state termed reaction, the first 
object and purpose of every form of bathing. By this re- 
action the internal organs are relieved, respiration is light- 
ened, the heart is made to beat calm and free, the tone of the 
muscular system is increased, the appetite is sharpened, the 
mind more clear and strong, and the whole system seems to 
possess new power. Regularity in bathing is necessary to 
produce permanently good effects. 

Obsei-vaiion 1. — The simplest modes of bathing are by means of the 
sponge or the shallow baths. The body may be quickly sponged over, 
wiped dry and followed by friction. The water may be warm or cold. 
If cold, the bath should be taken in the early part of the day, and 



272 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOaY AND HYGIENE. 

followed by exercise. If exercise cannot be taken, tbe individual should 
rest under covering. The warm bath should usually be taken just be- 
fore retiring. If taken at other hours, it should be followed by rest from 
half an hour to one hour under proper covering. 

2. — The shallow bath, in which the body is partly immersed in water, 
is very pleasant and safe, provided the bather exercises in it by vigorous 
rubbing and does not remain too long. For a cold bath it is not often 
safe to exceed five minutes, and with delicate persons the time should 
rarely exceed two or three minutes. A bath is considered cold when 
below 75° ; temperate, from 75° to 85° ; tepid, from 85° to 95°. This 
and every other form of batii should be followed by thorough friction 
with a coarse towel or flesh-brush. 

530. The frequency of hathing must depend upon the con- 
dition and occupation of the individual. Daily bathing may 
be practiced with profit by most persons, but to the studious 
and sedentary it is in most cases absolutely indispensable. 

531. The hour for ablution is of importance. It should 
neither immediately precede nor follow a meal. The same is 
true of severe mental and muscular exercise. The bath is 
less beneficial in the afternoon than the forenoon. The best 
time for cold baths is two or three hours after breakfast. 
The system is then at " flood-tide," while from that time till 
the retiring hour the tide is ebbing ; hence, the worst time for 
a cold bath is at bed-time. For those who cannot choose 
their time, the hour of rising will answer very well- — that is, 
for many persons, especially if they become accustomed to 
the use of water by beginning at another and a better hour. 
If the mind and body are brightened by the early bath, and 
an exhilaration follows, the bath is beneficial ; if, on the con- 
trary, languor follows, and the skin looks blue or too pale, it 
is injurious. That the bath is to be followed by exercise 
must not be forgotten. 

532. In diseases of the shin, and many chronic ailments of 
the internal organs, hathing is a remedial measure of great 
power. In disease which has baffled the skill of physicians 
depending wholly upon internal remedies, the effect of a 
systematic course of baths is often surprising. Like other 
curative means, the baths should be directed by those who 



THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 273 

thoroughly understand the use of water as a remedial agency. 
IVIatters of diet, exercise, etc., require adaptation to the treat- 
ment of the particular case. Those who desire the full benefit 
of these means must avail themselves of the appliances of a 
well-conducted hygienic establishment. 

Observation 1. — A few simple rules must be observed in bathing. 
The face and head should be wet in cold water before the bath. Cool 
baths should not be taken when the person is chilly, perspiring or 
greatly fatigued. All general baths should be taken briskly, the skin 
well rubbed and quickly dried, followed by a healthy glow over the 
whole body. Exercise should immediately follow all baths. Warm 
baths at night should be taken just before retiring; at other hours they 
should be followed immediately by rest, under coverings, after which 
exercise should be taken. 

2. — Soap is admirably adapted to the removal of dirt from the skin, 
but if it is too freely used on the general surface of the body, it dissolves 
the oily exudation of the sebaceous glands, leaving the skin dry or 
wrinkled. The external epithelial cells may be removed too rapidly 
when soap is used in excess, consequently the skin is not properly 
protected. 

533. Pure Air is an agent of great importance in the 
functions of the skin. It imparts to this membrane some 
oxygen, and receives from it carbonic acid gas. It likewise 
removes perspiration and portions of the oily secretion. 

534. Light exercises a very salutary influence upon the 
skin. It is no less essential to the vigor of animal than of 
vegetable life. Dwelling-houses should be built with refer- 
ence to the free admission of sunlight and air into all occu- 
pied rooms. The dark, damp rooms so much used by indi- 
gent families and domestics in cities and large villages are 
fruitful causes of vice, poverty and suffering. Ladies often 
suffer seriously from too much exclusion of sunlight. Ex- 
cepting in very warm weather, they should practice sitting 
or exercising in the full sunshine of the out-door world. 

M* 



274 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 
What are classed tinder Organs of Special Sense? 

CnAPTER XII. — The Organs of Special Sense. 
g 4:8. Anatomy of the Organs of Special Sense. — 464. What is the organ of the sense 
jf Taste? Give a description of the Tongue. From what nerves are filaments received? 
465. Describe the organ of the sense of Smell. Mention the nerves. 466. What is the 
Eye? Name its parts. Of what service is the Sclerotica? Describe the Choroidea. 
What is said of the Iris ? Of what do the cilinry processes consist? What is the Retina? 
467. Describe the Aqueous Humor. Crystalline lens. Observation. 468. What is the 
Vitreous Humor? Distinguish between it and Aqueous Humor, 469. Speak of the 
muscles of the Eye. Observation. 470. What are the Orbits? Eyebrows? Eyelids? 
Observation. Of what does the Lachrymal Apparatus consist? Where is the Lachrymal 
Gland situated? Describe the Lachrymal Canals. Nasal Duct. 471. What is said of the 
sense of Hearing? 472. Why the Labyrinth so called? Give its divisions. 473. Describe 
the Vestibule. 474. Describe the Semicircular Canals. What is contained in the Vesti- 
bule and canals? 475. Speak of the Cochlea. 476. What is the Tympanum? Why 
called the Drum? Where is the Eustachian Tube? What are found in the tympanic 
cavity? 477. Describe the External Ear. 478. What is the seat of the sense of Touch? 
What is said of the Skin ? 479. Of 'what does the skin consist ? 480. Of what does the 
Epidermis consist? Give the relation of the Epidermis to the Dermis. What change 
does the Epidermis experience? What is the seat of color? 481. What is the Cuticle? 
482. What is said of the Dermis? 483. Describe the Papillary layer. 484. Speak of the 
blood-vessels, lymphatics and nerves of the Dermis. 485. Describe the Ilair-Follicles. 
Describe the different parts of a hair. 486. Describe the Oil-Glands. 487. Where are 
the Sweat-Glands? What are "pores"? What is "insensible transpiration"? 488. 
Speak of the Nails. Of what is the horny part composed? How do they grow? 

g 4:9. Physiology of the Organs of Special Sense. — 489. State the primary use of the 
sense of Taste. What is said of this sense in man? What is the effect of cultivation? 
Observation. 490. Is the sense of Smell one of great importance? Why not? Observa- 
tion. 491. When light passes through different media, to what changes are its rays sub- 
ject? Whateffect have convex or concave surfaces? Illustration. 492. Give the shape of 
those parts of the eye which act as media. State the use of so many lenses. Illustration. 
493. How is the eye able to change the convexity of its lenses and vary its focal distances? 
Observation. 494. What is the function of the Sclerotic coat ? What that of the pigment 
of the Choroid coat? Illustration. 495. Speak of the accessory parts of the eye. 496. 
What is Hearing? 497. What is the function of the External Ear? 498. What that 
of the Auditory Canal? State the design of the Eustachian Tube. Give the uc^s of the 
Vestibule, Cochlea and Semicircular Canals. 499. What are distinguished by this sense? 
How does this apparatus compare with that of vision? 500. Speak of the special organ 
of the sense of Touch. Observation. 501. State the threefold functions of the skin. 
502. Give the uses of the Epidermis. Observation. 503. Where does vitality reside? 
Why there ? 504. What power does the surface of the skin possess ? 505. What are the 
uses of the oil derived from the oil-glands? 506. State the uses of Perspiration. By 
what is the quantity influenced ? 507. What is the influence of the condition of the 
atmosphere. Observation. 508. Give the functions of the Hair and Nails. 

g 50. Hygiene of the Organs of Special Sense.— f)Q9. What perverts the sense of Taste? 
Observation. 510. By what may the sense of Smell become impaired? 511. What care 
is necessary in using the eye? 512. What is said in regard to sudden transitions of light? 
513. What should be avoided? Observation. 514. How should the eye of the child be 
trained? Observations. 515. Can the sense of Hearing be improved? 516. How may 
this sense be impaired? Observation. 517. What parts are absolutely essential, and 
what not? 518. To what must attention be given to maintain a healthy action of the 



THE OEGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 275 

skin? 519. What is said of the use of clothing? 520. Of what material should it be 
Observation. 521. Why should tlie clothing be porous and loosely fitted? Observation 
522. To what must it be suited? Observation. 523. Who require the more clothing? 
Observation. 52-4. What is said of clothing when a vital organ is diseased? 525. What 
persons need less clothing? 526. What is said of cleanliness of the clothing? 527. 
What of damp clothing? 528. What is indispensable to health? 529. What effect has 
bathing on the internal organs? 530. Upon what must depend the frequency of bathing? 
531. What should the time be ? 532. In what diseases is bathing of great importance ? 
Observations. 533. State the influence of pure air. 534. What influence does light 
exercise ? 



276 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

Fig. ISO. 

r 




Fig. 180. A Representation of the Brain, Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves.- 
1, The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum. 3, 3, Spinal cord. 4, The sciatic nerve. 

A. Distribution of the Ulfactory Nkrve. — 1, 2, Nerve of smell. 

B. Optic Nerve. — 15. The nerve of vision. 

C. The Gustatory Nerve.— 1, 2, 3, 4, Branches of the nerve of taste. 

D. Auditory Nerve. — 13, Nerve of hearing. 



THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 



277 



SYNTHETIC TOPICAL KEVIEW. 



Organs of Taste, Smell and Sight, 

Sclerotica, Clioroidea, 

Iris, 

Ciliary Processes, 

Ketina, 

Aqueous, Crystalline and Vitreous Humors, 

Muscles of the Eye, 

Orbits, Eyebrows, Eyelids, 

Lachrymal Glands and Canals, 

Nasal Duct, 

Organs of Hearing, 

Labyrinth, Vestibule, 

Semicircular Canals, 

Cochlea, Tympanum, 

External Ear, 

Organ of Touch, 

Two layers of skin — Epidermis and Dermis, 

Hairs, 

Sebaceous and Perspiratory Glands, 

Nails. 

Sense of Taste, Primary use. 

Smell, 
Laws of Light, 

" Adaptation of the eye, 

Short-sightedness, Cause, 
Long-sightedness, " 
Defect remedied, 
Coats, Function, 
Accessory parts of the eye, 
Hearing, 

External Ear, Function, 
Auditory Canal, " 
Eustachian Tube, " 

Cochlea and Semicircular Canals, Function, 
Hearing, Function, " 

Organ of Touch, 
Skin, Function, 

Epidermis and Cuticle, Function, 
Corium, Vessels, 
Oil-Glands, Function, 
Perspiration. Use, 

Quantity, 
" External condition, 

Hair and Nails. 
Sense of Taste. Perversion, 

Smell, 
Eye, how to be used, 
Amaurosis, 

Oblique positions, long-continued. 
Viewing objects at different distances. 
Bathing the eye. 
Dust, removal. 
Defective Hearing, Cause, 
Hearing, parts essential. 
Clothing, Material for 
Class of persons needing more clothing. 
Clothing, Cleanliness, 
Bathing. Modes, 

" Time, 

Water a curative agent. 
Bathing, General flules. 
Skin. Air beneficial, 
" Effect of light. 



?48. 
AnaUmiy q 



Physiology of. 



Chap. XIL 

The Organs of 
Special Sense. 



State the Anatomy, the Physiology and the Hygiene of the Organs 
of Special Sense, the Care of the Sick, of Poisoned Persons and of per- 
Bons injured in any way. 



APPENDIX. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

CARE OF THE SICK. 

I 1. In every home, however humble or dignified, woman is 
usually the Nurse. Nature seems to have endowed her in an 
especial manner to minister at the couch of disease and suffering. 
To be a good nurse requires a high type of womanhood; she 
should have both mental and physical power, blended with integ- 
rity and Christian trust. 

If " good nursing is half the cure," how important that the 
daughter be early taught how to prepare drinks and nourishments, 
to administer medicine, and to perform the varied and important 
duties of the faithful nurse I 

In the first stages of disease, it is always proper treatment to 
rest both body and mind. It is wrong to tempt the appetite of a 
sick person ; the disinclination for food is the warning of Nature 
that the system cannot well digest it. 

The beneficial effects of bathing can hardly be over-estimated, 
but the mode of the bath should be directed by the medical ad- 
viser. The best time, however, for bathing is when the patient 
feels most vigorous and freest from exhaustion. Care is necessary 
to wipe dry the skin, particularly between the fingers and toes, and 
also the flexions of the joints. Friction from a brush, moreen 
mitten or a dry flannel that has been saturated with salted water 
tends to relieve restlessness in patients. Chafing with the naked 
hand, making the movements from the nerve-centres to the ex- 
tremities, is peculiarly soothing, particularly if performed by a 
vigorous and healthy person. Air-baths have a tranquilizing 
influence. 

The physician well knows that his attention to the sick is 
quite unavailing unless the nurse obeys his directions ; for a nurse, 
or immediate relatives or friends of the sick, to put their judgment 

279 



280 APPENDIX. 

in opposition to that of the physician, is not only arrogant, but 
endangers the patient. The room for the sick should be selected 
where sunlight may enter, and as far from external noise as pos- 
sible. It is poor economy, not to say unkind, to keep a sick person 
in a small, ill-arranged bed-room, when a more spacious and airy 
room is kept for only occasional " callers." All superfluous furni- 
ture should be removed from the sick-room. 

Quiet should reign in the sick-room. No more persons should 
enter or remain in it than the welfare of the patient demands. It 
is the duty of the physician to direct when visitors should be ad- 
mitted or excluded, and the nurse should enforce the directions. 
The movements of the attendants should be gentle: no bustling to 
" clear up the room " at a fixed time ; this should be done quietly, 
and when it will give the least annoyance to the sick. (It may be 
necessary to use a damp cloth in dusting the furniture, also the 
carpet, especially if the patient has disease of the lungs.) Creak- 
ing hinges should be oiled ; shutting doors violently and heavy 
walking avoided. All unnecessary conversation should be deferred. 
If a colloquy must be carried on, let the tone be so high that the 
patient, if interested, can thoroughly comprehend it. 

The making of the bed is often badly conducted. All bunches 
should be removed, the material of the bed laid even and a thin 
quilt spread smoothly oyer a mattress. When convenient, have the 
head of the bed northerly (123), and so situated, at least, that the 
sick man may look on something more pleasurable than a table of 
glasses and phials. A nurse should never manifest impatience in 
arranging the pillows, but try to adapt them to the comfort of the 
weary patient. 

All utensils employed in the sick-room should be kept clean. 
Water designed for the patient to drink should not stand long in 
an open glass or pitcher, but be given fresh from a spring or well. 
A very sick person is fatigued by being raised to receive drinks, 
hence a bent tube or a cup with a spout should be used. 

Both the apparel and the bed-linen should be changed more fre- 
quently in sickness than in health, and oftener in acute than in 
chronic diseases. All clothing, whether from the laundry or 
bureau, should be well dried and warmed by a fire previous to 
being put on the bed or the patient. 

No agent is of more importance to the sick-room than pure air; 
hence, the nurse, with all convenient speed, should remove every- 
thing that can emit an unpleasant odor. She should be chary of 



APPENDIX. 281 

keeping ripe fruit or bouquets of flowers any length of time in the 
sick-chamber. When a disinfectant is needed, procure some at 
the druggist's. To change quickly and effectively the air of the 
sick-room, cover the patient's bed with an extra blanket and 
closely envelop his head and neck, except the mouth and nose ; 
the door and windows can then be safely opened for a short time 
without detriment. After the windows are closed, retain the extra 
coverings on the patient until the room is of proper warmth. 
Unless duly protected, the patient should never feel currents of air, 
although fresh air should be constantly admitted into the sick- 
room. (It is preferable to have pure air introduced from an ad- 
joining apartment.) Few persons realize the necessity of fresh air 
being constantly admitted into an occupied room, whether by the 
healthy or the sick. The air exhaled from the lungs contains not 
only carbonic acid gas, but a vapor which gives the peculiar odor 
to the breath (363). All know its stifling character that have 
opened a close chamber that has been occupied during the night. 
Disease may be contracted by inhaling this vapor of respiration, 
as well as by actual contact with contagious matter. 

A well-adjusted thermometer is indispensable, as the feelings of 
the patient or nurse are not to be relied on as a true index of the 
temperature of the room. Eegulating the warmth of the patient 
is one of the many duties of the nurse. There is a " sweating tem- 
perature ;" when this is exceeded, perspiration will cease if it has 
been present, or that it will not take place during a high tem- 
perature. The patient should no more be allowed to complain of 
too much heat, without an attempt at its reduction, than he should 
be permitted to remain chilly when the removal is possible. 

The nurse should not confine herself to the sick-room longer 
than six hours at a time. She should exercise daily in the open 
air, also eat and sleep as regularly as possible. No doubts or fears 
of the patient's recovery, either by a look or a word, should be 
communicated by the nurse in the chamber of the sick ; this duty 
devolves upon the physician. 

Medicines assist the natural powers of the system to remove dis- 
ease. They should be given regularly, judiciously and with a 
cheerful manner, and administered as directed by the physician. 
Life itself is often at the mercy of the nurse, and depends on the 
faithful discharge of her duty. 

Drinks have a more decided influence upon the system than is 
generally admitted. They may be acid or alkaline, cold or hot, as 
24 » 



282 APPENDIX. 

the condition of tlie patient requires. The nurse should never 
depart from the quality of the drink, nor even exceed the due or 
prescribed quantity. Giving "herb-teas" without the sanction 
of the physician may cause serious evil. 

In diseases of a typhoid character, and also in chronic ailments, 
where prostration from the waste of tissues and diminished genera- 
tion of animal heat exists after the subsidence of active disease 
(when solid food cannot be taken), the gradual introduction into 
the system of the staminal elements of food that is easily digested 
and assimilated becomes an important matter. The albuminous, 
saccharine and oleaginous substances of food, together with an in- 
creased amount of carbon, is found in the admixture of refined 
sugar with sweet pure milk and a small amount of pure alcoholic 
spirits in the form of " milk punch." 

Solid food, as masticating beef steak or dry toasted crackers, is 
often preferable to gruels and other liquid food, especially when 
it is necessary to excite an action in the salivary and mucous 
glands. The food of the sick should be prepared in the neatest 
and most careful manner, and the nurse ought to obey implicitly 
the physician's directions about diet. When a patient is con- 
valescent, the desire for food is generally strong ; great care, firm- 
ness and patience is required that the food be prepared suitably 
and given at the proper time. 

We append a few modes of preparing nourishment for the sick. 

Crust Coffee. — Take light, sweet bread or crackers, and brown 
them thoroughhj as you would cofiee berry ; when wanted for use, 
pour over boiling water (the crusts will admit of several replenish- 
ings of boiling water) ; add sugar and cream to suit the condition 
of the patient. 

Gruels. — Corn meal requires to be boiled several hours to be 
suitable nourishment for the sick. The mode of preparing gruel 
should be suited to the case and directed by the physician. Wheat, 
or oat-meal, farina and sago, can be prepared in less time, though 
they must be well cooked. Add salt while cooking. 

Egg Gruel. — Take the yolks of two eggs, boiled hard, and with 
a knife reduce them to a fine powder ; beat this into a flour gruel 
made of new milk ; salt and spices may be added if the condition 
of the patient admits. 

Beef Tea. — Meat contains principles that may be extracted, 
some by cold, others by warm, and others, again, by boiling, water ; 
it should be cut very fine, and submitted for three hours each time, 



APPENDIX. 283 

in succession, to half its weight of cold, of warm and of boiling 
water; the fluids strained from the first and second macerations 
are to be mixed with that strained from the boiling process, and 
the mixture should be brought to a boiling heat to cook it — the fat 
skimmed off; add a few drops of some acid, with salt, for a flavor. 
A quicker, though less nutritious, mode of making beef tea, is to 
cut beef fine, put it in a glass bottle, cork it, place it in a kettle of 
cold water, then boil the beef from two to three hours ; when cooled, 
strain the liquor and add salt. 

^ 2. The duty of the Watcher is scarcely less responsible than 
that of the nurse, and, like the nurse, she should ever be cheerful, 
kind, firm and attentive in the presence of the patient. 

The watcher should be prompt, and reach the house of the sick 
at an early hour ; before entering the sick-room, she should eat a 
simple, nutritious supper, and also during the night take some 
plain food. She should be furnished with an extra garment, as a 
heavy shawl, to wear toward morning, when the system becomes 
exhausted. 

The directions about the sick, especially the administration of 
medicine, should be written for the temporary watcher. Whatever 
may be wanted during the night should be brought into the sick- 
chamber or the adjoining room before the family retires to sleep, 
that the slumbers of the patient be not disturbed by haste or 
searching for needed articles. 

Sperm candles are preferable for the sick-room. Kerosene, in 
burning, emits a disagreeable odor, often annoying to the patient. 
All lights ought to be so arranged as not to be reflected in the part 
of the room where the sick lie. 

It is not necessary that watchers make themselves acceptable to 
the patient by exhausting conversation. If two watchers are 
needed, it' is more imperative that they refrain from talking, and 
particularly whispering. 

Most sick persons have special need of nourishment about four 
or five o'clock in the morning. 

The attendant upon the sick should not sit between the patient 
and the fire, and also should avoid sitting in the current of air that 
is flowing out of the room. 

When taking care of the sick, light-colored clothing should be 
worn in preference to dark apparel, especially if the disease is 
of a contagious character. It is always safe for the watcher to 



284 



APPENDIX. 



change her apparel worn in the sick-chamber before entering upon 
her family duties. Disease is often communicated by the clothing. 
It can hardly be expected that the farmer who has been labor- 
ing hard in the field, or the mechanic who has toiled during the 
day, is qualified to render all those little attentions that a sick 
person requires. Hence, would it not be more benevolent and 
economical to employ and pay watchers who are qualified by 
knowledge and training to perform this duty in a faithful manner, 
while the kindness and sympathy of friends may be practically 
manifested by assisting to defray the expenses of these qualified 
and useful assistants? 



^ 3. The Treatment of Wounds or Ii^jvuies.— Contusions 
or bi^uises are generally treated by the injured person or some 
member of the family. The bruised limb should rest, be kept 
moderately warm, bathed frequently with tepid water and chafed 
moderately with the naked hand. 

Incised Wounds ("cuts"). — At first there is free bleeding from 
the many divided capillaries. If no large vein or artery is severed, 

the flow of blood will 

Fig. 181. soon cease; press the 

\ gaping wound to- 

---;;^^ ,yO y^2o g^^^^^j ^°^ trickle 

-^^^ ^ ^ -^^ ^y> on cold water until 

the blood and all 
foreign matter is re- 
moved; then apply 
narrow strips of ad- 
hesive plaster. 

The union of the 
divided parts is ef- 
fected by the action 
of the blood-vessels, 
and not by " healing 
salves" or "oint- 
ments." The only 
object of the dressing is to keep the parts together and protect the 
wound from air and impurities. Nature performs her own cure. 
Such wounds seldom need a second dressing, and should not be 
opened till the incisions are healed. To lessen the liability of a 
reopening, a proper position for the union should be regarded. 




Fig. 181. a, a, Representation of Wounds on the back 
part of the fore-arm, 6, &, Wounds of the anterior part 
of the arm and fore-arm. By bending the elbow and 
wrist, the incisions at a, a, are opened, while those at 6, 6, 
are closed. Were the arm extended at the elbow and 
wrist, the wounds at a, a, would be closed, and those at 
6, 6, would be opened. 



APPENDIX. 



285 



If the wound be between the knee and ankle, and on the anterior 
part, extend the knee and bend up the ankle ; if on the posterior 
part, reverse the movement, and, in general, suit the position to 

the case. 

Fig. 1S2. 




Fig. 182 represents the Manner of applying adhesive strips to wounds. 

Lacerated Wounds. — In these injuries, the jagged, torn parts 
do not heal by the "first intention," but suppurate before cica- 
trizing. Cleanse the 

parts with cold water ^^' ^ 

and apply a soft poul- 
tice. All wounds made 
by blunt or pointed 
instruments, as nails, 
should be examined hf 
a surgeon. 

Wounds from Poison- 
ous Serpents or Rabid 
Animals should have 
cupping-glasses imme- 
diately applied, or 
sucked by the mouth. 
Give freely alcoholic 
stimulants until a phy- 
sician arrives. 

Observation -Alihongh. 
animal poisons, when 
introduced into the cir- 
culating fluid through 
the broken surface of the 
skin, frequently cause 
death, yet they can be 
taken into the mouth 
and stomach with im- 
punity, if the mucous 
membrane which lines these parts is not broken. 




Fig. 183. The Manner of Compressing Divided Ar- 
teries. — A, Compressing the large artery of the arm 
with the thumb. B, The subclavian artery. C, Com- 
pressing the divided extremity of an artery in fh^ ?r?v'((t 
with a finger. 



286 



APPENDIX. 



Hemorrhage from Divided Arteries should be Ar- 
rested, otherwise the heart soon ceases its action, and the person 
faints. If a large artery is wounded, every beat of the pulse throws 
out the blood in jerks. Until surgical help can be summoned, the 
flow of the blood may be stopped either by compressing the vessel 
between the wound and the heart, or by compressing the end of 
the artery next the heart in the wound. 



Fig. 184. 



Fig. 185. 




Fig. 184. The Method of Applying the Knotted Haxdkeuchief, to compress a 
divided artery. A, B, Track of the brachial artery. . 

VlG. 185. A, C, The track of the femoral artery ; the compress applied near the groin. 

After compression as described and illustrated, take a square 
piece of cloth, or handkerchief, twist it cornerwise, and tie a hard 
knot in the middle. Place the knot over the artery between the 
wound and the heart, carry the ends around the limb and tie 
loosely. Place a stick under the handkerchief near the last tie, 
and twist till the fingers can be removed from the compression 
without a return of the bleeding. When an artery in a limb be 
cut, elevate the limb as far as possible, till the bleeding ceases. 

Burns and Scalds. — When blisters are formed, the epidermis 
is separated from the other layer of the skin by the effusion of 
serum ; this fluid should be let free by puncturing the cuticle, care 
being taken not to remove the thin raised skin, as it makes the 
best possible protection to the sensitive, inflamed tissues beneath. 
When this thin outside layer of skin is removed, immediately 
cover the denuded parts with wheat flour, or a plaster made of lard 



APPENDIX. 287 

and bees'-wax or the white of an egg; in a word, substitute a 
cuticle to protect the exposed nerves from the air. When dress- 
ings are applied, they should not be removed until they become 
dry and irritating. 

To prevent vesication, when only a small patch of the skin is 
scalded or burned, apply steadily cold water until the smarting 
pain ceases ; then put on a simple dressing, " not to take out the 
fire or to heal it," but to protect the injured membrane. 

When the epidermis, in particular spots, is exposed to excessive 
pressure or friction, it becomes too much thickened, producing 
^^ Corns" These are not necessarily confined to the feet, but are 
produced in front of the clavicle of the soldier from the pressure 
of his musket, or on the knee of the cobbler. The pain of the 
callosity is due to its exciting inflammation ' in the sensitive 
dermis upon which it presses. Eemove the pressure, and the 
affected part is restored to its normal state. 

Frost-Bite is usually manifested first upon parts unprotected 
by covering, as the face or ears, and especially the nose. In such 
case, the skin first becomes red, from congestion of the dilated 
capillary vessels ; next it becomes bluish, from arrest of the circu- 
lation ; and afterward of a dead white hue. To restore circulation 
and sensibility, rub the frozen part with snow or apply iced water. 
Keep the sufferer at first in a cold room, and let the return to a 
higher temperature be gradual and cautious, or gangrene may 
supervene. 

The Chilblain is not produced by the action of cold, but by 
the effect of heat on the chilled extremity. Bathe the inflamed 
parts with a mixture of sweet oil, glycerine and camphorated 
spirits. 

§ 4. Asphyxia from Drowning, Chloroform or Gas. 

" Drowning. — 1st, Treat the patient instantly on the spot, in the 
open air, freely exposing the face, neck and chest to the breeze, 
except in severe weather. 2d, In order to clear the throat, place 
the patient gently on the face, with one wrist under the forehead, 
that all fluid, and the tongue itself, may fall forward and leave 
the entrance into the trachea or windpipe free. 3d, To excite 
respiration or breathing, turn the patient slightly on his side and 
apply some irritating or stimulating agent to the nostrils, as harts- 
horn or dilute ammonia, cologne, etc. 4th, Make the face warm 
by brisk friction ; then dash cold water upon it. If not success- 
ful, lose no time to imitate respiration. 



288 APPENDIX. 

"Artificial Respiration. — First, place the patient on the 
face and turn the body gently but comjyletely on the side and slightly 
beyond; then again on the face, repeating alternately these move- 
ments, deliberately and perse veringly,^/i{ee?i times only in a minute. 

" Observation 1. — When the prone or face position is resumed, make 
a uniform and eflSicient pressure along the spinal column or back-bone, 
removing the pressure immediately before rotation on the side ; con- 
tinue these measures. (The pressure augments the expiration, and 
rotation commences inspiration.) 

*' 2. — When the patient lies on the chest, this cavity is compressed 
by the weight of the body, and expiration takes place : when turned on 
the side, this pressure is removed, and inspiration occurs. 

" 3. — Rub the limbs upward, with firm pressure and with energy, to 
aid the return of venous blood to the heart. 

"4. — Rub the body briskly till it is dry and warm, then dash cold 
water upon it and repeat the rubbing. 

" Avoid the immediate removal of the patient, as it involves a 
dangerous loss of time. Avoid the warm bath. Substitute for the 
patient's wet clothing, if possible, such other covering as can be 
instantly procured, each bystander supplying a coat until flannel 
blankets are obtained. To excite inspiration, let the surface of 
the body be slapped briskly from time to time with the hand." 

{From Marshall HalVs Treatment of Asphyxia from Drowning, Chloroform or Gas.) 

POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 
■ I 5. Poisoning, either from accident or design, is of such fre- 
quency that every household should keep some available remedy, 
and every person should know what to do in such alarming, contin- 
gencies. Nearly every poison has its antidote, which, if used at 
once, may prevent much suffering and even death. 

When known that poison has been taken into the stomach, the 
first thing is to evacuate it by the use of the stomach-pump or an 
emetic, unless vomiting takes place spontaneously. 

As an emetic, ground Mustard mixed in warm water is always 
safe. Take one tablespoonful to one pint of warm water. Give the 
patient one-half in the first instance, and the remainder in fifteen 
minutes, if vomiting has not commenced. In the interval, drink 
copious draughts of warm water. Irritate the throat with a feather 
or the finger, to induce vomiting. After vomiting has begun, give 
mucilaginous drinks, such as flaxseed tea, gum-arabic water, or 
slippery elm. 



APPENDIX. 



289 



If the patient is drowsy, give a strong infusion of cold coffee, 
keep him walking, slap smartly on the back, use electricity ; it may 
be well to dash cold water on the head, to keep the patient awake. 
After the poison is evacuated from the stomach, to sustain vital 
action give warm water and wine or brandy. If the limbs are 
cold, apply warmth and friction. 

In ALL cases of poisoning call immediately a physician, as the 
after-treatment is of great importance. 



Poisons. 
Aconite (Monkshood). 
Belladona (Deadly Night-Shade). 
Bryony. 
Camphor. 

Croton Oil. 

Digitalis (Foxglove). 

Dulcamara (Bitter-Sweet). 

Gamboge. 

Hyoscyamus (Henbane). 

Laudanum. 

Lobelia. 

Morphine. 

Opium. 

Paregoric. 

Sanguinaria (Blood-Koot). 

Savin Oil. 

Spigelia (Carolina Pink). 

Stramonium (Thorn Apple). 

Strychnine (Nux Vomica). 

Tobacco. 



Antidotes ob Remedies foe Poisons. 



For Vegetable poisons give an emetic 
of Mustard; drink freely of warm 
water; irritate the throat with a 
feather to induce vomiting. Keep 
the patient awake until a piiy- 
sician arrive. 



Arnica. 

Prussic Acid. 

Bitter Almonds (Oil of). 

Laurel Water. 

Ammonia (Hartshorn). 

Potash. 

Soda. 

25 



Vinegar and water. 

} Drink, at once, one teaspoonful of 
Wafer of Hartshorn (ammonia) in 
one pint of water. 

] Antidote is Vinegar or Lemon Juice, 
followed with sweet, castor or lin- 
seed oil. Thick cream is a sub- 

J stitute for oil. No emetic. 
X 



290 



APPENDIX. 



Iodine. 



Antidotes or Remedies for Poisons. 
■> Starch or wheat flour beat in water. 
J Take a Mustard emetic. 



Saltpetre (Nitrate of Potasaa). 



{Take, at once, a Mustard emetic; 
drink copious draughts of warm 
water, followed with oil or cream. 

Two teaspoonfuls of table salt (chlo- 
lodium) mixed in one pint 



Lunar Caustic 



}iwo teaspoon 
ride of sodi 
of water. 



CorrosiveSubliraate(bug poison), 
White Precipitate. 
Red Precipitate. 
Vermilion. 



Arsenic. 

Cobalt (fly powder). 

King's Yellow. 

Ratsbane. 

Scheele's Green. 

Acetate of Lead (Sugar of Lead). 

White Lead. 

Litharge. 

Antimony (Wine of). 
Tartar Emetic. 



Pearl-ash. 

Ley (from wood-ashes). 

Salts of Tartar. 



Sulphuric Acid (Oil of Vitriol). 
Nitric " (Aquafortis). 

Muriatic " (Marine). 
Oxalic Acid. 



Beat the Whites of six Eggs in one 
quart of cold water; give a cup- 
ful every two minutes, to induce 
vomiting. A substitute for white 
of eggs is soap-suds slightly thick- 
ened with wheat flour. Emetics 
should not be given. 

Use a stomach-pump as quickly as 
possible, or give a Mustard emetic 
until one is obtained. After free 
vomiting, give large quantities 
of Calcined Magnesia, The anti- , 
dote for Arsenic is Hydraied Per' 
oxide of Iron. 

Use a Mustard emetic, followed by 
Epsom or Glauber Salts. The 
antidote is diluted Sulphuric Acid. 

The antidote is ground Nutgall. A 
substitute, oak or Peruvian bark, 
followed by a teaspoonful of pare- 
goric. 

I Drink freely of Vinegar and water, 
> followed with a mucilage, as flax- 
' seed tea. 

Drink largely of water or a muci- 
lage. It is important that some- 
thing be given quickly, to neutralize 
the acid. The antidote is Calcined 
Magnesia. Chalk, lime, strong 
soap-suds, are substitutes for mag- 
nesia. 



APPENDIX. 



291 



Matches (Phosphorus). 
Rat Exterminator. 

Verdigris. 
Blue Vitriol. 



Sting of Insects. 



Tainted Crabs, Oysters or Fish. 

Charcoal Fumes. 
Gas or Burning Fluid. 



Antidotes ob Remedies fob Poisons. 

}Give two tablespoonfuls of Calcined 
Magnesia, followed by mucilag- 
inous drinks. 

}The antidote is Cooking Soda, or 
White of Eggs. Drink milk freely. 

Ammonia, or cooking soda moistened 
with water, applied in the form 
of a paste. The wound may be 
sucked, followed by applications 
of water. 

"I Use a Mustard emetic, and drink 
J freely of vinegar and water. 

"i Fresh air and Artificial Eespira- 
J tion. 



APPENDIX. 

Chapter XIII. — Caee of the Sick. 

§ 1. The Nurse. — What is proper treatment in the first stages of disease ? State Bome 
of the duties of the nurse in the sick-room — Location of the room — Quiet — Arrangement 
of the bed — Ventilation of the sick-room — Temperature — Food and drinks. Name the 
means of nourishment, and tell how tliey may be prepared. 

g a. The Watcher.— Give the duties of the Watcher. 

§ 3. Give the manner of dressing wounds. How can hemorrhage be arrested? Speak 
of Burns, Scalds and Frost-Bite, and their treatment. 

§ 4. How may asphyxiated persons be recovered? 

§ 5. Poisons and their Antidotes. — When poisons have been taken, what is to be done ? 
Name the most common poisons, and their antidotes. 



292 



APPENDIX. 



Fig. 186.. 



PALPeBMRUU 




APPENDIX. 



293 



SUMMARY.— SYNTHETIC TOPICAL REVIEW. 



Sect. 1. The Three Kingdoms of Nature 


1 Chap. I. 




\ 


Compared. Definitions. 


1 General Remarks. 






" 2. Cells. 


' Chap. II. 


Division I. 




" 3. Tissues. 

" 4. Membranes. 


1" General Histology. 

Chap. III. 
' General Chemistry. 


Outline 
Principles. 




" 5. Solids and Fluids. 






" 6. Anatomy of. 








" 7. Histology of. 








" 8. Chemistry of. 


Chap. IV. 






" 9. Physiology of. 


The Bones. 






" 10. Hygiene of. 

" 11. Comparative Osteology. 




Division II. 




" 12. Anatomy of. 
" 13. Histology of. 




Motory 
Apparatus. 




" 14. Chemistry of. 


Chap. V, 






" 15. Physiology of. 


The Muscles. 






" 16. Hygiene of. 








" 17. Comparative Myology. 








« 18. Anatomy of. 








" 19. Histology of. 
" 20. Chemistry of. 


Chap. VI. 






" 21. Physiology of. 


The Digestive 






« 22. Hygiene of 


Organs. 






" 23. Comparative Splanchnology. 








" 24. Anatomy of. 






^ 


" 25. Histology of. 
" 26. Chemistry of. 


Chap. VII. 




P 


" 27. Physiology of. 


Tlie A hsorhents. 




» 28. Hygiene of. J 






'B 


« 29. The Blood. 




Division III. 


p 


" 30. Anatomy of 




Nutritive 




" 31. Histology of 
" 32. Chemistry of • 


Chap. VIII. 


Apparatus. 


CQ 


" 33. Physiology of. 


The Circulation. 






" 34. Hygiene of 








" 35. Comparative Angiology. 








" 36. Assimilation, General and Specific. 


Chap. IX. 
Assimilation. 






" 37. Anatomy of 








" 38. Histology of 


Chap. X. 






" 39. Chemistry of. 
" 40. Physiology of 
" 41. Hygiene of 


The Organs of 
Respiration. 






" 42. Comparative Pneumonology. 








" 43. Anatomy of 
" 44. Histology of 


CUAV. XL 






" 45. Physiology of 


The Nervous 


Division IV. 




" 46. Hygiene of 


System. 


Nervous 




" 47. Comparative Neurology. 




Apparatus. 




" 48. Anatomy of "] 


Chap. XIT. 






" 49. Physiology of. 


The Organs of 






" 50. Hygiene of J 


Special Sense. 






" 1, 2. Care of the Sick. 








" 3. Treatment of Wounds, Hemor- 


Chap. XHI. 






rhage and Burns. 


Appendix. 






" 4. Asphyxia. 






" 5. Poisons and Antidotes. 









State succinctly the Anatomy, the Histology, the Chemistry, the 
Physiology and the Hygiene of Mammals. 



GLOSSARY. 



Ab-do'men. [L. abd/), to hide.] That part 
of the body which lies between the tho- 
rax and the bottom of the pelvis. 

Ab-sorp'tion. [L. ab, and sorbeo, to suck 
up.] The imbibition of a fluid by an 
animal membrane or tissue. 

A-ce-tab/d-lum. [L. acetum, vinegar.] The 
socket for the head of the thigh-bone; 
an ancient vessel for holding vinegar. 

A-Ce/tic. [L. acetum, vinegar.] Relating 
to acetic acid. This is always composed 
of oxygen, hydrogen and carbon in the 
same proportion. 

A-CHii/us. A term applied to the tendon 
of the two large muscles of the leg. 

A-CRO^Mi-ON. [Gr. oKpos, dkros, highest, and 
b)ju.o$, orrws, shoulder.] A process of the 
scapula that joins to the clavicle. 

Al-bxj/men. [L. albus, white.] An animal 
substance of the same nature as the 
white of an egg, 

A-LU^MiN-UM. [L.] The name given to the 
metallic base of alumina. 

Ai/vE-o-LAR. [L. alveolus, a socket.] Per- 
taining to the sockets of the teeth. 

Am-mo^ni-a. An alkali. It is composed 
of three equivalents of hydrogen and one 
of nitrogen. 

Am-phib^i-ans. [Gr. aju.<^c, amphi, both, 
and /3ios, bios, life.] A class of animals 
so formed as to live on land and in 
water. At one period of their existence 
they breathe by gills, at another by 
lungs. 

A-NAS^TO-MOSE. [Gr. avoL, ana, through, 
and arofjia, stoma, mouth.] The com- 
munication of arteries and veins with 
each other. 

AN-A-TOM/i-CAt. Relating to the parts of 
the body when dissected or separated. 

A-nat/o-mt. [Gr. ava, ana, through, and 
T0/U.12, tome, a cutting.] The description 



of the structure of animals. The word 
anatomy properly signifies dissection. 

An-gi-oi/o-gy. [Gr. ayysiov, angeion, a 
vessel, and A070S, logos, discourse.] A 
description of the vessels of the body, as 
the veins and arteries. 

An/gu-li. [L. angulus, a corner.] A term 
applied to certain muscles on account 
of their form. 

An-i-mai/cd-LjE. [L. animalcula, a little 
animal.] Animals that are only per- 
ceptible by means of a microscope. 

An-nu-lo/sa. [L. annulus, a ring.] Fur- 
nished with rings ; articulata. 

An-te/ri-ob. [L.] Before or in front in 
place ; opposed to posterior. 

A-obt/a. [Gr. aopTTj, aorte; from aijp, air, 
air, and rripeoi, tereo, to keep.] The great 
artery that arises from the left ventricle 
of the heart. 

Ap-o-neu-ko'sis. [Gr. awo, apo, from, and 
vevpov, neuron, a nerve.] The mem- 
branous expansion of muscles and ten- 
dons. The ancients called every white 
tendon neuron, a nerve. 

Ap-pa-ra^tus. [L. apparo, to prepare.] An 
assemblage of organs designed to produce 
certain results. 

Ap-pend^ix. [L. ad and pendeo, to hang 
from.] Something appended or added. 

A/que-ous. [L. aqua, water.] Partaking 
of the nature of water. 

A-bach/noid. [Gr, apaxvr), arachne, a spider, 
and ci5os, eidos, form.] Resembling a 
spider's web; a thin membrane that 
covers the brain. 

Ab/bor. [L.] Arbor vitse. The tree of 
life. A term applied to a part of the 
brain. 

Ar^te-et. [Gr. ttTjp, air, air, and rrjpeui, 
tireo, to keep; because the ancients 
thought that the arteries contained only 
295 



296 



GLOSSARY. 



air,] A tube through which blood flows 
from, the heart. 

A-RTT-E^.N'oiD. [Gr. apvTaLva, arutaina, a 
ewer, and eiSos, etdos, form.] The name 
of a cartilage of the larynx. 

As-PHYX'i-A. [Gr. a, a, not, and <r<|)vfis, 
sphyxis, pulse.] Originally, want of 
pulse; now used for suspended respira- 
tion or apparent death. 

As-THAG^A-LUS. [Gr.] The name of a bone 
of the foot; one of the tarsal bones. 

AuD-iT-o^Ri-us. [L. audio, to hear.] Per- 
taining to the organ of hearing. 

Au'bi-cle. [L. auricula, the external ear ; 
from auris, the ear.] A cavity of the 
heart; the "deaf ear." 

Ax-ii^LA. [L.] The armpit. 

A-zoTj/. [Gr. a, a, not, and ^wij, zoe, life.] 
Nitrogen. One of the constituent ele- 
ments of the atmosphere, so named be- 
. cause it will not sustain life. 

Ben-zo'ic. Benzoic acid. A peculiar vege- 
table acid obtained from benzoin and 

some other balsams. 
Bi'CEPS. [L. his, twice, and caput, a head.] 

A name applied to muscles with two 

heads at one extremity. 
Bi-cxis^PiDS. [L. bis, two, and cuspis, a point.] 

Teeth that have two points upon their 

crown. 
Bile. [L. bilis.] A viscid, bitter fluid 

secreted by the liver. 
Bi-PEN^Ni-FORM. [L. his, two, and penna, a 

feather.] Having fibres on each side of 

a common tendon. 
Brach'i-al. [L. hrachium.] Belonging to 

the arm. 
Bronch'i-a, -m. [L.] a division of the 

trachea that passes to the lungs. 
Bronch-i^tis. [L.] An inflammation of the 

bronchia. 
Bur's^ Mu-co^s^. [L. bursa, a purse, and 

mucosa, viscous.] Small sacs containing 

a viscid fluid, situated about the joints, 

under tendons. 

C^'cUM. [L.] Blind; the name given to 
the commencement of the colon. 

Cal'gi-um. [L.] The metallic basis of lime. 

Cai/cis. [L.] The heel-bone. 

Can-a-iic^c-li. [L.] a little pipe or channel. 

Cap'ii-la-rt. [L. capillus, a hair.] Re- 
eembling a hair; a small tube. 



Cap'sule. [L. capsula, a little chest.] A 
membranous bag enclosing a part. 

Ca/puT. [L.] The head. Caput coli, the 
head of the colon. 

Oar/bon. [L. carho, a coal.] Pure charcoal. 
An elementary combustible substance. 

Cak-boi^/ic. Pertaining to carbon. 

Cah/di-ac. [Gr. KapSia, kardia, heart.] 
Relating to the heart, or upper orifice 
of the stomach. 

Car/ne-a, -m. [L. caro, carnis, flesh.] 
Fleshy, 

Car-niv'o-rous. [L. caro, flesh, and voro, 
to eat.] Eating or feeding on flesh. 

Ca-rot/id. [Gr. xapoj, karos, lethargy.] 
The great arteries of the neck that con- 
vey blood to the heart. The ancients 
supposed drowsiness to be seated in 
these arteries. 

Car/pus, -I. [L.] The wrist. 

Car/ti-lage. [L. cartilago,] Gristle. A 
smooth, elastic substance, softer than 
bone, 

Caxj-ca'sian, One of the races of men, 

Ca/va. [L.J Hollow. Vma Cava, a name 
given to the two great veins of the body, 

Cei/lu-lar. [L. cellula, a little cell.] Com- 
posed of cells. 

Cek-e-bei/lum. [L.] The hinder and 
lower part of the brain, or the little 
brain. 

Cer/e-bro-Spi^nal. Relating to the brain 
and spine. 

Cer/e-brom. [L.] The front and large 
part of the brain. The term is some- 
times applied to the whole contents of 
the cranium. 

Cer/vi-cal. [L. cervix, the neck.] Relating 
to the neck. 

Chem/is-trt. [Ar. kimia, hidden art.] It 
relates to those operations by which the 
intimate nature of bodies is changed, or 
by which they acquire new properties. 

Chest. [Sax.] The thorax ; the trunk of 
the body from the neck to the abdomen. 

Chlo'rine. [Gr, x^<^Po^^ chloros, green.] 
Chlorine gas, so named from its color, 

Chor/da, -m. [L.] A cord ; an assemblage 
of fibres. 

Cho'roid. [Gr. xop'^ov, chorion.] A terra 
applied to several parts of the body that 
resemble the skin. 

Chyle, [Gr. x^Aos, chulos, juice.] A nutri- 
tive fluid, of a whitish appearance, which 



GLOSSARY. 



297 



is extracted from food by the action of 
the digestive organs. 

Chyl-i-fi-ca'tion. [L. chylus, chyle, and 
facto, to make.] The process by which 
chyle is formed. 

Chtme. [Gr. x^'MO'i chumos, juice.] A kind 
of grayish pulp formed from the food in 
the stomach. 

Chym-i-fi-ca/tion. [L. chumos, chyme, and 
facio, to make.] The process by which 
chyme is formed. 

Cii/iA-RT. [L. cilia, eyelashes.] Belonging 
to the eyelids, 

Cin-e-ri/tious. [L. cinus, ashes.] Having 
the color of ashes. 

Clav^i-cle. [L. clavis, a key.] The collar- 
bone ; so called from its resemblance in 
shape to an ancient key. 

Clei^do. a term applied to some muscles 
that are attached to the clavicle. 

Co-ag/u-lum. [L.] a coagulated mass; a 
clot of blood. 

Coc/cYX. [Gr.] An assemblage of bones 
joined to the sacrum. 

Coch'le-a. [Gr. /cox^w, Tcochlo, to twist ; or 
L. cochlea, a screw.] A cavity of the ear 
resembling in form a snail-shell. 

Co^LOX. [Gr. KtoXov, Tcolon, I arrest.] A por- 
tion of the large intestine. 

Co-lum/na, -X. [L.] A column or pillar. 

CoM^Mis-SURE. [L. committo, I join to- 
gether,] A point of union between two 
parts. 
■ CoM-PLEX^os. [L. compUctor, to embrace.] 
The name of a muscle that embraces 
many attachments. 

Con/dtle. [Gr. KovSvAos, kondulos, a 
knuckle, a protuberance,] A promi- 
nence on the end of a bone. 

CoN-JUNC-Ti'vA. [L. con, together, andjungo, 
to join.] The membrane that covers the 
anterior part of the globe of the eye. 

Cop'pee. a metal of a pale red color tinged 
with yellow. 

Cor-a'coid. [Gr. Kopaf , Jcorax, a crow, and 
eiSoy, etdos, form.] A process of the 
scapula shaped like the beak of a crow. 

Cc/ei-um. [Gr. xopto*'. chorion, skin,] The 
true skin, 

Coen'e-a. [L. comu, a horn.] The trans- 
parent membrane in the fore part of the 
eye. 

Coe/po-ea. [L. corpus, a body.] The name 
given to eminences or projections found 



in the brain and some other parts of the 

body. 
Cos'ta. [L. casta, a coast or side.] A rib. 
Crib/ri-foem. [L. cribrum, a sieve, and 

forma, form.] A plate of the ethmoid 

bone through which the olfactory nerve 

passes to the nose. 
Cei'coid. [Gr. xpiKos, Tcrikos, a ring, and 

ciSos, eidos, form.] A name given to a 

cartilage of the larynx, from its form, 
Ceys^tal-line, [L, crystallinus, consisting 

of crystal.] Crystalline lens, one of the 

humors of the eye. 
Cu/bi-tus, -I. [L. cubitus, the elbow.] One 

of the bones of the forearm; also called 

the ulna. 
Cu/boid. [Gr. Kv/3os, Tcuhos, a cube, and 

eiSos, etdos, form.] Having nearly the 

form of a cube. 
Cu-ne'i-foem. [L, euneus, a wedge.] The 

name of bones in the wrist and foot. 
Cus'piD. [L. cuspis, a point.] Having one 

point. 
Cu-ta'ne-ous. [L. cutis, skin.] Belonging 

to the skin. 
Cu'ti-cle. [L. cutis, skin.] The external 

layer of the skin. 
Curtis Ve/ra. [L, cutis, skin, and vera, 

true,] The internal layer of the skin ; 

the true skin. 

De-cus-sa'tion. [L, decutio, I divide.] A 
union in the shape of an X or cross. 

Dei/toid. [Gr. BeXra, delta, the Greek let- 
ter A, and eifios, eidos, form.] The name 
of a muscle that resembles in form the 
Greek letter A. 

Den/tal. [L. dens, tooth.] Pertaining to 
the teeth. 

De-press'oe. [L.] The name of a muscle 
that draws down the part to which it is 
attached. 

Deem/did. [Gr. Sepua, derma, the skin, and 
eiSo?, eidos, form,] Resembling skin. 

De-scend'ens. [L. de and scando, to climb.] 
Descending, falling. 

Di'a-phragm. [Gr. 6ta(^payju,a, diaphragma, 
a partition.] A muscle separating the 
chest from the abdomen ; the midriff. 

Di-ar-eh(e/a. [Gr. Stappew, diarrhea, to flow 
through.] A morbidly frequent evacua- 
tion of the intestines, 

Di-as/to-le. [Gr. SiaarekXai, diastello, to 
put asunder.] The dilatation of the 



298 



GLOSSARY. 



heart and arteries when the blood enters 
them. 

Di-ges'tion. [L. digestio.} The process of 
disisolving food in the stomach and pre- 
paring it for circulation and nourish- 
ment. 

Doe'sal. [L. dorsum, the back.] Pertain- 
ing to the back. 

Du-o-de/num. [L. duodenus, of twelve 
fingers' breadth.] The first portion of 
the small intestine. 

Du'ka Master. [L. durus, hard, and mater, 
mother.] The outermost membrane of 
the brain. 

Dys'en-ter-y. [Gr. 5us, dus, bad, and 
ei/Tcpta, enteria, intestines.] A discharge 
of blood and mucus from the intestines, 
attended with tenesmus. 

Dys-pep'si-a. [Gr. 6us, dus, bad, and nenria, 
peptd, to digest.] Indigestion or difficulty 
of digestion. 

En-am/el. [Fr.] The smooth, hard sub- 
stance which covers the crown or visible 
part of a tooth. 

En-do-cak/di-um. [Gr. evSov, endon, within, 
and KapSia, kardia, the heart.] The 
membrane that lines the heart. 

En-dos-mo'sis. [Gr. evhov, endon, within, 
and WO-/X0S, osmos, to push.] The trans- 
mission of fluids through membranes, 
inward. 

E-pen'dy-ma. [Gr.] The membrane which 
lines the ventricles of the brain. 

Ep-i-derm'is. [Gr. eiti, epi, upon, and 
Sepixa, derma, the skin.] The superficial 
layer of the skin. 

Ep-i-glot'tis, [Gr. ctti, epi, upon, and 
ykotrra, glotta, the tongue.] One of the 
cartilages of the glottis ; during the act 
of swallowing, it prevents the food enter- 
ing the larynx. 

Ep-i-the/li-um. [Gr, ctti, epi, upon, and 
djjArj, thele, a nipple.] A layer of soft 
cells covering the surface of the lining 
membranes and part of the skin. 

Eth'moid. [Gr. rj^/aos, ethmos, a sieve, and 
et5os, eidos, a form.] A bone of the skull. 

Eu-sta'chi-an Tube. A channel from the 
fauces to the middle ear; named from 
Eustachi, who first described it. 

Ex'cre-ment. [L. excerno, to separate.] 
Matter excreted and ejected j alviue dis- 
charges. 



Ex'cre-to-hy. a little duct or vessel, des- 
tined to receive secreted fluids and to 
excrete or discharge them ; also a se- 
cretory vessel. 

Ex-ua/lant. [L. exhalo, to send forth 
vapor.] Having the quality of exhaling 
or evaporating. 

Ex-tkns'or. [L.] A name applied to a 
muscle that serves to extend any part 
of the body ; opposed to Flexor. 

Fascial. [L. fades, face.] Pertaining to 

the face. 
Falx. [L. falx, a scythe.] A process of 

the dura mater shaped like a scythe. 
Fas'ci-a. [ L. /acia, a band.] A tendinous 

expansion or aponeurosis. 
Fas-cic/u-lus, -LI. [L. fascis, a bundle.] 

A little bundle. 
Faux, -ces. [L.] The top of the throat. 
Fem/o-ral. Pertaining to the femur. 
Fe/mur. [L.] The thigh-bone. 
Fe-nes'tea, -um. [L. fenestra, a window.] 

A term applied to some openings into 

the internal ear. 
Fi'bre. [L.fibra.'] An organic filament or 

thread which enters into the composition 

of every animal and vegetable texture. 
Fi/brin. a peculiar organic substance 

found in animals and vegetables; it is a 

solid substance, tough, elastic and com- 
posed of thready fibres. 
Fi'bro-Car/ti-lage. An organic tissue, par- 
taking of the nature of fibrous tissue and 

that of cartilage. 
Fib/u-la. [L., a clasp.] The outer and 

lesser bone of the leg. 
Fii/a-ment. [h.flamenta, threads.] A fine 

thread, of which flesh, nerves, skin, etc., 

are composed. 
Flex/ion. [L. flectioJ] The act of bending. 
Foi/li-cle. [L. folliculus, a small bag.] 

A little bag or sac formed of an animal 

membrane; the orifice is generally 

minute. 
FoRE^ARM. The part of the upper extremity 

between the elbow and hand. 
Fos'sA. [L., a ditch.] A cavity in a bone, 

with a large aperture. 
Fr^num. [L., a bridle.] Frsenum linguse, 

the bridle of the tongue, 
FUNC^TION. [L. fungor, to perform.] The 

action of an organ or system of organs. 
Fun^QI-form. [L, fungus and forma. 



GLOSSAEY. 



299 



Having terminations like the head of a 
fungus or a mushroom. 
Fu-Nic/o-iiAR. [L.] Consistiug of a small 
cord. 

Gan/gli-on, -a. [Gr.] An enlargement in 
the course of a nerve. 

Gas/tric. [Gr. yaar-qp, gaster, the stomach.] 
Belonging to the stomach. 

Gas-troc-ne/mi-us. [Gr. yacrrrip, gaster, the 
stomach, and Kv-quri, kneme, the leg.] 
The name of large muscles of the leg 
■which serve to draw the heel upward. 

Gei/a-tin. [L. gelo, to congeal.] A con- 
crete animal substance, transparent and 
soluble in water. 

Ging/ly-form. [Gr. yiyyAv/xo?, ginglumos, 
a knife-like joint, and eiSos, eidos, a 
form.] An articulation that only admits 
of motion in two directions. 

Gland. An organ consisting of tubes and 
follicles, with blood-vessels interwoven, 
from which the gland elaborates its 
secretion. 

Gle/noid. [Gr. yXrjvri, glme, a cavity.] A 
term applied to some articulate cavities 
of bones. 

Glos^sa. [Gr.] The tongue. Names com- 
pounded with this word are applied to 
muscles of the tongue. 

Glot/tis. [Gr.] The narrow opening at 
the upper part of the larynx. 

Glu'te-us, -I. [Gr.] A name given to 
muscles of the hip, 

GoM-PHo'sis. [Gr. yoiJi<f)ovv, gomphoun, a 
nail.] The immovable articulation of the 
teeth with the jaw-bone, like a nail in a 
board. 

Gus-ta'to-rt. [L. gusto, to taste.] A name 
given to the nerve of taste. 

Hem/qr-rhage. [Gr. ai/xa, haima, blood, 
and priyvvoi, regnuo, to burst.] A dis- 
charge of blood from an artery or vein. 

Herb-iv/q-rous. [L. herba and voro.] Feed- 
ing on herbs or vegetables. 

1Ie-pat/ic. [Gr. rjnap, hepar.] The liver. 

His-TOi/o-QT. [Gr. icTTo?, histos, tissue, and 
A.oyo?, logos, discourse.] A description 
of the minute structure of the body. 

Hu^MER-us. [L.] The bone of the arm. 

Hy/A-LOiD. [Gr.] A transparent mem- 
brane of the eye. 

Hr^DRO-GEN. [Gr. vSwp, hydor, water, and 



yepvam, gennad, to generate.] A gas 

which constitutes one of the elements 

of water. 
Hy/gi-ene. [Gr. vyieivoi', hugiemon, health.] 

The part of medicine which treats of the 

preservation of health. 
Hy/oid. [Gr. V and ei5o?, eidos, shape.] 

A bone of the tongue resembling the 

Greek letter Upsilon in shape. 
Hy/po-glos^sal. Under the tongue. The 

name of a nerve of the tongue. 

Ii/e-um. [Gr. eiAw, eilo, to wind.] A por- 
tion of the small intestines. 

Ii/i-TJAf. The haunch-bone. 

In-ci/sob. [L. incido, to cut.] A front 
tooth that cuts or divides. 

In'dex. [L. indico, to show.] The fore- 
finger; the pointing finger. 

In-nom-i-na'ta. [L. in, not, and nomen, 
name.] Parts which have no proper name. 

Ln-os'cc-laxe. [L. in, and osculatus, from 
oscular, to kiss.] To unite, as two vessels 
at their extremities. 

In-ter-cost/al. [L. inter, between, and 
costa, a rib.] Between the ribs. 

In-ter-sti/tial. [L. inter, between, and sto, 
to stand.] Pertaining to or containing 
interstices. 

In-ter-vert^e-bral. [L.] Between the 
vertebra. 

In-tes/tines. [L. intus, within.] The canal 
that extends from the right orifice of the 
stomach to the anus; about thirty feet 
long. 

Vris. [L., the rainbow.] The colored circle 
that surrounds the pupil of the eye. 

I/vo-RY. A hard, solid, fine-grained sub- 
stance of H fine white color; the tusk 
of an elephant. 

Je-ju'ncm. [L., empty.] A portion of the 
small intestine. 

Ju^GU-LAR. [L. jugulum, the neck.] Re- 
lating to the throat; the great veins 
of the neck, 

Ker/a-tin. [Gr. /cepa?, keras, horn.] The 
albuminous ingredient of the hair and 
nails. 

Li/Bi-i. [L.] The lips. 
Lab'y-kinth. [Gr.] The internal ear, so 
named from its many windings. 



300 



GLOSSARY. 



Lach'rt-mal. [L. lachryma, a tear.] Per- 
taining to tears. 

Lac^te-al. [L. lac, milk.] A small tube 
of animal bodies for conveying chyle 
from the intestine to the thoracic duct. 

La-cc'n^. [L.] a small pit or depression. 

Lam/i-na, -X. [L.] A plate or thin coat 
lying over another. 

Lar/ynx. [Gr. Kapvy^, larunx.] The upper 
part of the windpipe. 

Lar-tn-gi^tis. Inflammation of the larynx. 

La-tis'si-mus, -mi. [L., superlative of lotus, 
broad.] A term applied to some muscles. 

Le-va'tor. f L. leva, to raise.] A name ap- 
plied to a muscle that raises some part. 

Lig'a-ment. [L. Ugo, to bind.] A strong, 
compact substance serving to bind one 
bone to another. 

LiM^BOUS. [L.] Edge or border. 

Lin'e-a, -m. [L.] a line. 

Lin'gua, -m. [L.] a tongue. 

Li'VER. The largest gland in the system. 
It is situated below the diaphragm, and 
secretes the bile. 

Lobe. A round projecting part of an organ. 

Lob/cle. A division of a glandular organ 
communicating with a single duct. 

Lum'bar. [L. lumbixs, the loins.] Pertain- 
ing to the loins. 

Lymph. [L. lympha, water.] A colorless 
fluid in animal bodies, and contained in 
vessels called lymphatics. 

Lym-phat^ic. a vessel of animal bodies that 
contains or conveys lymph. 

Mag-ne/si-um. The metallic base of mag- 
nesia. 

Mag'nus, -na, -num. [L., great.] A term 
applied to certain muscles. 

Ma'jor. [L., greater.] Greater in extent 
or quantity. 

Mam'mals, -ia. [L.] Include man and all 
the ordinary quadrupeds. 

Man'ga-nese. a metal of a whitish gray 
color. 

Mar/ga-rin. [Gr. fxapyapov, margarm, a 
pearl.] A fatty substance intermediate 
in consistency between stearin and 
olein. 

Mar/row. [Sax.] A soft, oleaginous sub- 
stance contained in the cavities of bones. 

Mas-se'ter. [Gr. /uia<rcrao|iAai, massaomai, 
to chew.] The name of a muscle of the 
face. 



Mas'ti-cate, Mas-ti-ca^tion, [L. mastico.'] 
To chew ; the act of chewing. 

Mas'toid. [Gr. fxao-ros, mastos, breast, and 
etSo?, eidns, form.] The name of a pro- 
cess of the temporal bone behind the ear. 

Max-ii/la. [L.] The jaw-bone. 

Me-a'tus. [L. meo, to go.] A passage or 
channel. 

Me-di-as-ti^num. a membrane that sepa- 
rates the chest into two parts. 

Me^di-om, -a. [L.] The space or substance 
through which a body passes to any 
point. 

Med'cl-la-ry. [L. medulla, marrow.] Per- 
taining to marrow. 

Me-dui/la Ob-lon-ga^ta. Commencement 
of the spinal cord. 

Me-dui/la Spi-na'lis. The spinal cord. 

Mem'bra-na. a membrane; a thin, white, 
flexible skin formed by fibres interwoven 
like network. 

Mes'en-ter-y. [Gr. /meo-os, mesos, in the 
midst, and evrepov, enteron, the intes- 
tine.] The membrane by which the in- 
testines are attached to the spinal 
column. 

Me-ta-car'pus. [Gr. fiera, meta, after or 
beyond, and xapTros, Jcarjws, wrist.] The 
part of the hand between the wrist and 
fingers, 

Me-ta-tar'sus. [Gr. juera, meta, after or 
beyond, and ropo-os, tarsos, the tarsus.] 
The instep. A term applied to seven 
bones of the foot. 

Mid'rifp. [Sax. mid and hrife, the belly.] 
See Diaphragm. 

Mi/nor. [L.] Less, smaller. A term ap- 
plied to several muscles. 

Mi'tral. [L. mitra, a mitre.] The name 
of the valves on the left side of the heart. 

Mo-T)i/o-LUS. [L. modus, a measure.] A 
cone in the cochlea around which the 
membi-anes wind. 

Mo'l\e. [L. mola, a mill.] The name of 
some of the large teeth. 

Moi/lis. [L.] Soft. 

Mo'tor, -es. [L. moveo, to move.] A mover. 
A term applied to certain nerves. 

Mu'cous. Pertaining to macus. 

Mu'cus. A viscid fluid secreted by the 
mucous membrane. 

Mus/cle. a bundle of fibres enclosed in a 
sheath. 

My-0-lem'ma. [Gr. jiavs, mus, a muscle, and 



GLOSSAEY. 



301 



Kenfxa, lemma, to receive.] The invest- 
ing membrane of a fibre. 
MY-oiyo-GY, [Gr. IJLV9, mus, a muscle, and 
Aoyo5, logos, a discourse.] A description 
of the muscles. 

Na^sal. Relating to the nose. 

Nerve. An organ of sensation and motion 
in animals. 

Nerv/ous Cen'tre. a collection of gray- 
nervous matter, which receives impres- 
sions and originates the nervous im- 
pulses. 

Neu-ri-lem'a. [6r. vevpov, neuron, a nerve, 
and Ae/x./Aa, lemma, a sheath.] The sheath 
or covering of a nerve. 

Neu-roi/o-gy. [Gr. vevpov, neuron, a nerve, 
and \oyoi, logos, a discourse.] A descrip- 
tion of the nerves of the body. 

Ni'tro-gen. That element of the air which 
is called azote. 

Nu'cle-us. [L. nux, a nut.] The central 
part of any body, or that about which 
matter is collected. 

No-tri/tion. The art or process of pro- 
moting the growth or repairing the 
waste of the system. 

Oc/ci-PUT. [L. ob, and caput, the head.] 

The hinder part of the head. 
Oc'u-LUS, -I. [L.] The eye. 
(E-soph'a-gus. [Gr. oiw, oio, to carry, and 

(ftayu), phago, to eat.] The name of the 

passage through which the food passes 

from the mouth to the stomach. 
0-lec/ra-non. [Gr. ia\eve, olene, the cubit, 

and Kpavov, kranon, the head.] The 

elbow; the head of the ulna. 
O'le-in. An oily substance which is fluid 

at ordinary temperatures. 
Ol-fact'o-ry. [L. oleo, to smell, and facio, 

to make.] Pertaining to smelling. 
0-m£n'tum. [L.] The caul. 
Q/mo. [Gr. W/U.O?, omos, the shoulder.] 

The name of muscles attached to the 

shoulder. 
Oph-thai/mic. [Gr. 0(p9a\fj.o?, ophthalmos, 

the eye.] Belonging to the eye. 
Op/ti cus, Op^tic. [Gr. oTtToixai, optomai, 

to see.] Relating to the eye. 
Or-bic^u-lar. [L. orbis, a circle.] Circular. 
Or/gan. A part of the system destined to 

exercise some particular function. 
Or^i-gin. Commencement; souice. 
26 



Os. [L.] A bone; the mouth of any- 
thing. 

Os/ma-zome. [Gr. oct/atj, osme, smell, and 
^wjaos, zomos, broth.] A principle ob- 
tained from animal fibre which gives the 
peculiar taste to broth. 

Os'sE-ous. Pertaining to bones. 

Os'si-CLE. A little bone. 

Os^si-FY. [L. ossa, bones, and facio, to 
make.] To convert into bone. 

Os^TE-iNE. [Gr. ocrreov, osteon, a bone.] 
The albuminous ingredient of the bones. 

Os-te-oi/o-gy. [Gr. ocrTcoi', osteon, a bone, 
and Aoyo?, logos, a discourse.] The part 
of anatomy which treats of bones. 

O-va'le. [L.] The shape of an egg. 

Ox-al'ic. Oxalic acid is the acid of sorrel. 
It is composed of two equivalents of car- 
bon and three of oxygen. 

Ox/y-gen. a permanently elastic fluid, in- 
visible and inodorous. One of the com- 
ponents of atmospheric air. 

Pa-la^tum. [L.] The palate ; the roof of 
the mouth. 

Pal-pe-bra^rum. [L. palpelra, the eyelid.] 
Of the eyelids. 

Pai/mar. [L. palma, the palm.] Belong- 
ing to the hand. 

Pan^cre-as. [Gr. nav, pan, all, and /cpea;, 
kreas, flesh.] A long gland situated near 
the stomach (in domestic animals called 
the " sweet-bread"). 

Pan-cre-a/tin or stomach. The albuminous 
ingi-edient of the pancreas. 

Pa-pii/la, -^. [L.] Small conical promi- 
nences. 

Pa-rai/y-sis. Abolition of function, whether 
of intellect, sensation or motion. 

Pa-ren'chy-ma. [Gr. napeyxeoi, parengcheo, 
to pour through.] The substance con- 
tained between the blood-vessels of an 
organ. 

Pa-ri/e-tai. [L. paries, a wall.] A bone 
of the skull. 

Pa-rot/id. [Gr. trapa, para, near, and 
WTO?, otos, the gen. of ous, ous, ear, the 
ear.] The name of the largest salivary 
gland. 

Pa-teli/a, -m. [L.] The knee-pan. 

Pa-thet/i-cus, -CI. [Gr. iraOos, pathos, 
passion.] The name of the fourth pair 
of nerves. 

Pec/to-ral. [L.] Pertaining to the chest. 



302 



GLOSSAEY. 



Pe/dis. [L., gen. of pes, the foot.] Of the 
foot. 

Pe-dhn/cle. [L, pes, the foot.] A name 
applied to parts of the brain, from the 
resemblance to a flower-stalk. 

Pei/i-tongs. a term applied to masses 
of fat. 

Pel^li-cle. [L., dim. of pellus, the skin.] 
A thin skin or film. 

Pel'vis. [L.] The basin formed by the 
large bones at the lower part of the ab- 
domen. 

Pen^ni-form. [L. penna, a feather.] Hav- 
ing the form of a feather or quill. 

Pep^sin. [Gr. ireiTTta, pepto, to cook.] An 
ingredient of the gastric juice which acts 
as a ferment in the digestion of the food. 

Per-i-car'di-um. [Gr. n-ept, peri, around, 
and KapSia, kardia, the heart.] A mem- 
brane that encloses the heart. 

Per-i-chox'dri-um. [Gr. Trepi, pen', around, 
and x<'»'5po?, chondros, cartilage.] A 
membrane that invests cartilage. 

Per-i-cra%i-um [Gr. rrept, peri, around, 
and Kpaviov, kranion, the cranium.] A 
membrane that invests the skull. 

Per-i-mys^i-UM. [Gr. rrepi, peri, around, 
and ju,v?, mus, a muscle.] The investing 
membrane of a muscle. 

Per-i-os/te-um. [Gr. wept, peri, around, and 
oo-reof, osteon, a bone.] A membrane that 
immediately invests the bones of animals. 

Per-i-stai/tic. [Gr. TrepicrreAAw, peristello, 
to involve.] A movement like the crawl- 
ing of a worm. 

Per-i-to-ne^um. [Gr. vrepi, peri, around, 
and reivetv, teinein, to stretch.] A thin, 
serous membrane investing the internal 
surface of the abdomen. 

Per/ma-nent. Durable; lasting. 

Peb-spi-ra'tion. [L. per, through, and 
spiro, to breathe.] The excretion from 
the skin. 

Phal/anx, -ges. [Gr. <f>a\ay$, phalanx, an 
army.] Three rows of small bones form- 
ing the fingers or toes. 

Phar/ynx. [Gr. ^apvy^, pharunx.] The 
upper part of the oesophagus. 

Phos'pho-rus. [Gr. (^w?, phos, the light, 
and (f)epta, phero, to bear.] A combustible 
substance, of a yellowish color, semi- 
transparent, resembling wax. 

Phren^ic. [Gr. <j)priv, phren, the mind.] 
Belonging to the diaphragm. 



Pht8-i-ol/o-qt. [Gr. 4>v<tl^, phtisis, natmo, 
and A070S, logos, a discourse.] The science 
of the functions of the organs of animala 
and plants. 

Pi^A Ma/ter. [L., good mother.] The 
name of one of the membranes of the 
brain. 

PiN^NA. [L., a wing.] A part of the ex- 
ternal ear. 

Pla-tys'ma. [Gr. TrAarvs, platUs, broad.] 
A muscle of the neck. 

Plectra, -m. [Gr. n\evpa, pleura, the side.] 
A thin membrane that covers the inside 
of the thorax, and also forms the exterior 
coat of the lungs. 

Plex^us. [L. plecto, to weave together.] 
Any union of nerves, vessels or fibres, in 
the form of network. 

Pneu-mo-gas'tric. [Gr. nvevfxiov, pneumon, 
the lungs, and yacm^p, gaster, the stom- 
ach.] Belonging to both the stomach 
and lungs. 

Pneu-mo-nol/o-gt. [Gr. nvevixujv. pneumon, 
the lungs, and Aoyos, logos, a discourse.] 
A description of the lungs. 

PoL^Li-cis. [L.] A term applied to muscles 
attached to the fingers and toes. 

Pons. [L.] A bridge. Fons varolii, a 
transverse band of nervous fibres passing 
in a curved form from one side of the 
cerebellum to the other, spanning the 
medulla oblongata. 

Pos'ti-cus. [L.] Behind; posterior. A 
term applied to certain muscles. 

Por/ti-o Dd'ra. [L., hard portion.] The 
facial nerve ; eighth pair. 

Por/ti-0 Mol/lis. [L., soft portion.] The 
auditory nerve ; seventh pair. 

Po-tas'si-um. [L.] The metallic basis of 
pure potash. 

Pro-bos^cis. [Gr. npo, pro, before, and 
Poa-K<a, bosko, to feed.] The snout or 
trunk of an elephant or other animal. 

Pro^cess. a prominence or projection. 

Pro-na/tor. [L. pronus, turned down- 
ward.] The muscle of the forearm that 
moves the palm of the hand down- 
ward. 

Pro-to/plasm. [Gr. irpwTos, protos, first, 
and n\a(Tfj.a, plasma, formed.] The for- 
mal basis of all living bodies. 

Pro-to-zo'a. [Gr. irptaro^, protos, first, and 
^u>ri, zoe, life.] The infusoria or lowest 
class of animals. 



GLOSSARY. 



303 



Pul-mon'ic, ^ 

Pci/MO-NA-sr, I [L. pulmo, the lungs.] 

Pdl-mo-xa/lis. J 
Belonging or relating to the lungs. 

Pc/piL. A little aperture in the centre of 
the iris, through which the rays of light 
pass to the retina. 

Pr-Lo/Rrs. [Gr. nvkoypog, puloros, a gate- 
keeper.] The lower orifice of the stom- 
ach, with which the duodenum connects. 

Ra/di-xts. The name of one of the bones 
of the forearm. 

Ra-di-a^ta. [L. radio, to shoot rays.] In- 
cludes those animals whose parts are 
arranged round an axis and on one or 
several radii. 

Ra'bi-ate. Having lines or fibres that 
diverge from a point. 

Rec-re-men-ti'tial. [L. re, again, and 
cemo, to secrete.] Consisting of super- 
fluous matter separated from that which 
is valuable. 

Rec'tum. [L.] Straight. The third and 
last portion of the intestines. 

Re/flex AcAtiox. An involuntary action 
of the nervous system, by which an ex- 
ternal impression, conducted by a sensory 
nerve, is reflected or converted into a 
motor impulse. 

Reg/i-men. [L. rego, to govern.] The sys- 
tematic regulation of the food and 
drink. 

Rep/tiles, -ia. [L. repo, to creep.] A class 
of animals that breathe air from birth 
and are generally covered with scales. 

Re-sid/u-um. [L.] Waste matter. The 
faeces. 

Res-pi-ra^tion. [L. re, again, and spiro, 
to breathe.] The act of breathing ; in- 
spiring air into the lungs and expelling 
it again. 

Re-spi'ba-to-rt. Pertaining to respiration ; 
serving for respiration. 

Ret'in-a. [L. rete, a net] The essential 
organ of sight. One of the coats of the 
eye, formed by the expansion of the 
optic nerve. 

Ro-den'ti-a. [L. rodo, to gnaw.] A class 
of mammals having two large cutting 
teeth in each jaw, separated from the 
molar teeth by an empty space. 

Ro-tun'ddm, -A. [L.] Round; circular. 

Rd'ga, -m. [L.] a wrinkle ; a fold. 



Ru'mi-nant. [L.] An animal that chews 
the cud. 

Sa'crum. [L., sacred.] The bone which 
forms the posterior part of the pelvis, and 
is a continuation of the spinal column. 

Sa-li/ta. [L.] The fluid which is secreted 
by glands and poured into the mouth. 
It is a solvent of the food. 

San/gon-e-ous. [L. sanguis, the blood.] 
Abounding with blood; plethoric. 

Sar-to/ri-us. [L. sartor, a tailor.] A term 
applied to a muscle of the thigh. 

Sca^la, s. [L., a ladder.] Cavities of the 
cochlea. 

Sca-le/nus. [Gr. o-KaXrjvo?, skaUrws, un- 
equal.] A term applied to some muscles 
of the neck. 

Scaph/oid. [Gr, (TKa^i), skaphe, a little 
boat.] The name applied to one of the 
wrist-bones. 

ScAP'u-LA. [L.] The shoulder-blade. 

Sci-at/ic. [Gr.] Pertaining to the loins. 
The name of the large nerve of the loins 
and leg. 

SCLE-ROT^ic. [Gr. o-kXtjpos, skleros, hard.] 
A membrane of the eje. 

Se-ba/ceous. [L. sebum, tallow.] Pertain- 
ing to fat ; unctuous matter. 

Se-cre/tiox. The act of producing from 
the blood substances different from the 
blood itself, as bile, saliva; the matter 
secreted, as mucus, bile, etc. 

Se-cre/to-ry. Performing the oflQce of se- 
cretion. 

Se-ch.n'dus. Second. A term applied to 
certain muscles. 

Sem-i-cir/cu-lab. Having the form of a 
half circle. The name of a part of the 
ear, 

Sem-i-lu/nar "Valves. [L, semi, half, and 
luna, the moon.] Name of the three 
festooned valves of the heart, at the 
entrance of the great arteries. 

Sep'tum, -a. [L.] a membrane that divides 
two cavities from each other. 

Se/rous. Thin; watery. Pertaining to 
serum, 

Se^rum. [L.] The thin, transparent part 
of blood. 

Ser-ra'ted, [L. serra, a saw.] Notched on 
the edge like a saw. 

Sig/moid. [Gr.] Resembling the Greek s, 
Sigma. 



304 



GLOSSARY. 



Si-Li^ci-uM. A term applied to one of the 

earths. 
Si'nus. [L., a bay.] A cavity, the interior 

of which is more expanded than the 

entrance. 
Skei/e-ton. [Gr. aKe\\<a, skello, to dry.] 

The aggregate of the hard parts of the 

body ; the bones. 
So'di-um. The metallic base of soda. 
Sphe'noid. [Gr. a-(l)r}v, sphen, a wedge, and 

ei5o?, eidos, likeness.] A bone at the 

base of the skull. 
Sphinc'tee. [Gr. a-<i)iyyo}, sphingo, to re- 
strict.] A muscle that contracts or shuts 

an orifice. 
Spi'nal Cord. A prolongation of the brain. 
Spine. A thorn. The vertebral column; 

back-bone. 
Splanch-noi/o-gy. [Gr. (mKayxvov, spIancJi- 

non, the bowels, and Aovos, logos, a dis- 
course.] A description of the internal 

parts of the body. 
Spleen. A very vascular organ situated 

in the abdomen and attached to the 

stomach; the milt. 
Squa^mose. [L.] Scaly. 
Sta^pes. The name of one of the small 

bones of the ear. 
Ste/ar-in. [Gr. areap, stear, suet.] One of 

the proximate principles of animal fat, 

which is solid at ordinary temperatures. 
Ster/num. The breast-bone. 
Stio'ma-ta. The apertures in the bodies 

of insects communicating with the air- 



Stom'ach. The principal organ of the 

digestive apparatus. 
Stra'tum. [L. sierno,to spread.] A bed; 

a layer. 
Sty^loid. [L. stylus, a, -pencil.} An epithet 

applied to processes that resemble a 

style ; a pen. 
Sdb-cla/vi-an. [L. sub, under, and clams, 

a key.] Situated under the clavicle. 
Sub-cu-ta/ne-ous. [L. sub, under, and cutis, 

skin.] Situated under the skin. 
SuB-LiN^GUAL. [L. sub. Under, and lingua, 

the tongue.] Situated under the tongue. 
SuB-MAx'iL-LA-RY. [L. sub, Under, and 

maxilla, the jaw-bone.] Located under 

the jaw. 
Sui/PHUE. A simple mineral substance, 

of a yellow color, brittle, insoluble in 

water, but fusible by heat. 



Su-pi-na/toe. [L.] a muscle that turns 
the palm of the hand upward. 

Su'lCRE. [L. suo, to sew.] The seam or 
joint that unites the bones of the skull. 

Syn-o'vi-a. [Gr. aw, sun, with, and wov, 
oon., an egg.] The fluid secreted into the 
cavities or joints for the purpose of lubri- 
cating them. 

Sys/tem. An assemblage of organs com- 
posed of the same tissues and intended 
for the same functions. 

Sys-tem'ic. Belonging to the general sys- 
tem. 

Svs'to-le. [Gr. o-uo-TeAXo), sustello, to con- 
tract.] The contraction of the heart and 
arteries for expelling the blood and 
carrying on the circulation. 

Tae/sus. [L.] The posterior part of the 
foot. 

Tem'po-ral. [L. tempus, time.] Pertaining 
to the temples; so called, because the 
hair early begins to turn white with age 
in that portion of the scalp. 

Ten'don. [Gr. Teivw, teino, to stretch.] A 
fibrous cord by which a muscle is at- 
tached to a bone. 

Ten-tac/u-la, -m. [L. tento, to seize.] A 
filiform process or organ on the bodies 
of various animals. 

Ten-to^ri-um. [L. tendo, to stretch.] A 
process of the dura mater which lies be- 
tween the cerebrum and cerebellum. 

Tho/rax. [Gr.] That part of the skeleton 
that composes the bones of the chest; 
the cavity of the chest. 

Tho-rac'ic. Relating to the chest. 

TuY^ROiD. [Gr. flupeos, thureos, a shield.] 
Resembling a shield. A cartilage of the 
larynx. 

Tib/i^a. [L., a flute.] The large bone of 
the leg. 

Tis^suE. The texture or ^organization of 
parts. 

Ton'sil. [L.] a glandular body in the 
tliroat or fauces. 

Tra/che-a. [Gr. Tpaxvs, trachus, rough.] 
The windpipe. 

Trans-verse/. Lying in a cross direction. 

Tri'ceps. [L. tres, three, and caput, head.] 
Three. A name given to muscles that 
have three attachments at one ex- 
tremity. 

Tki-cus'pid. [L. tres, three, and cuspis^ 



GLOSSARY. 



305 



point.] The triangular valves iu the 

right side of the heart. 
Trit'u-rat-ing. Grinding to a powder. 
Troch/le-a. [Gr. rpoxo^^i-a., trochalia, a 

pulley.] A pullej'-like cartilage, over 

which the tendon of a muscle of the eye 



Troch/le-a-ris. [Gr. rpoxaKia, trochalia, a 
pulley.] A muscle of the eye, the tendon 
of which passes through a pulley-like 
ring. 

Trunk. The principal part of the body, to 
which the limbs are articulated. 

Tu'bee-cle. [L. <M6er, a bunch.] A pimple, 
swelling or tumor on animal bodies. 

Td/bule. [L.] a little tube or pipe. 

Tur/bi-na-ted. [L. tu7-bo, a whirling.] 
Three rolled or convoluted plates of 
bone attached to the outer wall of each 
nostril. 

Tym'pan-um. [L.] The middle ear. 

Ui/na. [It.] A bone of the fore-arm. 

U-re/ter. [Gr. oupeiv, ourein, to conduct 
water.] The excretory duct of the kid- 
neys. 

U/ric. [Gr. ovpov, ouron, urine.] An acid 
contained in urine and in gouty con- 
cretions. 

U-VE^A. [L. uva, a grape.] Resembling 
grapes. A thin membrane of the eye. 

U^TU-LA. A soft body suspended from the 
palate, near the aperture of the nostrils, 
over the glottis. 

Vac/cine Vi'rtjs. [L. vacca, a cow ; virus, 
poison.] Pertaining to cows; derived 
from cows. 

Valve. Any membrane, or doubling of 
2^* 



any membrane, which prevents fluids 

from flowing back in the vessels and 

canals of the animal body. 
Vas^cu-lar. [L. vasculum, a vessel.] Per- 
taining to vessels ; abounding in vessels. 
Veins. Vessels that convey blood to the 

heart. 
Ven/tri-cle. [L. venter, the stomach.] A 

small cavity of the animal body. 
Ver-mic/u-lab. [L. vermiculus, a little 

worm.] Resembling the motions of a 

worm. 
Verm-i-form/is. [L. vermis, a worm, and 

forma, form.] Having the form and 

shape of a worm. 
Vert/e-bfa, -je. [L. verto, to turn.] A joint 

of the spinal column. 
Ves'i-cle. [L. vesica, a bladder.] A little 

bladder. 
Ves^ti-bule. [L.] a porch of a house. 

A cavity belonging to the ear. 
Vii/li. [L. villus, hair.] The thread-like 

projections from the inner surface of the 

membrane that lines the small intes- 
tines. 
Vi'rus. [L., poison.] Foul matter of an 

ulcer; poison. 
Vi^TAL. [L. vita, life.] Pertaining to life. 
Vit/re-ous. [L. vitrum, glass.] Belonging 

to glass. A humor of the eye. 
Vo^LAR. [L. vola, the hollow of the hand 

or foot.] Belonging to the palm of the- 

hand. 
Vo/mer. [L., a ploughshare.] One of the 

bones of the nose. 

Ztg-0-mat^-cus. [Gr. fuyos, zugos, a yoke.] 
A term applied to some muscles of the 
face, from their attachment. 



INDEX. 



Absorbents, Anatomy of, 131. 

Histology of, 133. 

Chemistry of, 134. 

Physiology of, 135. 

HygieDe of, 137. 
Absorption, 131. 
Acids, Cerebric, 29. 

Cholic, 29. 

Lactic, 29. 

Uric, 29. 
AiK, 119, 175, 273. 
Air-Cells, 174. 
Albumen, 27. 
Albuminoids, 27. 
Albuminose, 27. 

Amphibians, 58, 92, 122, 159, 188, 234. 
Anatomy, Definition of, 13, 
Angiologt, Comparative, 156. 
Animals and Plants, Distinctions of, 11. 
Annulosa, 64, 125, 191, 234. 
Aorta, Thoracic, 144. 

Abdominal, 145. 
Aponeurosis, 71. 
Apparatus, Definition of, 13. 
Arteries, 144, 149. 

Hepatic, 146. 
Asphyxia, from Drowning, 287. 

from Carbonic Acid Gas, 288. 
Assimilation, 164. 
Auricle, of the Heart, 144. 
Azote, 27. 

Bathing, 271, 279. 
Beds, Making of, 280. 
Bile, 109. 
BlLIVEBDIN, 29. 

Birds, 58, 89, 124, 157, 187, 233. 
Blood, 141, 150. 
Blood- Vessels, 77. 



Bones, Anatomy of, 35. 

Histology of, 44. 

Chemistry of, 49. 

Physiology of, 49. 

Hygiene of, 53. 
Brain, 197. 
Bronchi, 170, 173. 
Burns and Scalds, 286. 
BuRS^ Mucosa, 47. 

Canaliculi, 45. 
Canal of Havers, 45. 
Capillaries, 145, 149. 
Capsule, Subcutaneous, 47. 
Carbon, 30. 
Cartilage, 47, 52. 
Cartilagen, 28. 
Casein, 28. 

Cells, Definition of, 15. 
Cellulak Tissue, 18. 
Cerebellum, 199. 
Cerebro-Spinal Axis, 198. 
Cerebrum, 200. 
Chemistry, Definition of, 13. 
Chest, Compression of, 186. 
Chilblains, 287. 
Chlorine, 30. 
Chondbigen, 28. 
Chyle, 111. 
Chyme, 111. 
Circulatory Organs, 143. 

Histology of, 147. 

Physiology of, 151. 

Hygiene of, 155. 
Clavicle, 40. 
Clothing, 268. 
Cochlea, 250. 

Commissures of the Brain, 198. 
Corns, Treatment of, 287. 

307 



308 



CoHPus Callosum, 202. 
Cruorin, 28. 
Crystalline Lens, 246. 
Cuticle, 253. 

Dermis, 253. 

Digestive Organs, Anatomy of, 98. 

Histology of, 104. 

Chemistry of, 108. 

Physiology of, 110. 

Hygiene of, 112. 
Drowned Persons, Treatment o^ 287. 

Ear, 249. 
• Elastin, 29. 
Endocardium, 147. 
Epidermis, 253, 263. 
Epiglottis, 170. 
Epithelium, 22. 
Eustachian Tube, 251. 
Excretion, 166. 
Eye, 244, 259, 266. 

Protecting Organs of, 247. 

Face, Bones of, 37. 

Fascia, 71. 

Fasciculi, 75. 

Fibre, 75. 

Fibrin, 27. 

Fishes, 58, 92, 125, 159, 188, 234. 

Food, Quantity of, 113. 

Quality of, 114. 

Manner of taking, 116. 

Conditions when taking, 117. 
Frost-Bite, Treatment of, 287. 

Ganglia, 197. 
Ganglionic Corpuscle, 21. 
Gastric Juice, 109. 
Gelatin, 28. 
Glands, Lachrymal, 248. 

Lymphatic, 132, 133. 

Oil, 256. 

Perspiratory, 256. 

Salivary, 101. 
Globulin, 28. 
Glucose, 29. 
Glycerine, 29. 

H^MATIN, 28, 

Hair-Follicles, 255, 265. 
Heart, 143. 

Auricles o£, 144, 152. 

Ventricles of, 144, 151. 
Hearing, Sense o^ 249, 262, 267, 



Heat, Animal, 176. 

Hemorrhage, Means of Arresting, 286. 
Histology, Definition of, 13. 
Hydrogen, 30, 

Inosit, 29, 78. 
Insects, 160, 235. 
Intestines, 102-106. 
Intestinal Juice, 110. 
Invertebbata, Definition of, 58. 
Iris, 245. 

Joints, 43, 47. 

Physiology of, 51. 

Keratin, 29. 
Kidneys, 166. 

Labyrinth, 249. 
Lachrymal Apparatus, 248. 
Lacteals, 134. 
Lactin, 29. 
Lacuna, 45. 
Larynx, 169, 172, 180. 
Ligament, 48, 52. 
Light, 273. 
Liver, 103, 107. 
Lungs, 170, 173. 
Lymph, 133. 
Lymphatics, 131, 133. 

Mammals, 58, 89, 120, 156, 232. 
Margarin, 29. 
Medicine, 281. 
Medulla, 46. 

Oblongata, 199. 
Melanin, 29. 
Membrane, Basement, 22. 

Cerebro-Spinal System, 212. 

Gastro-Pulmonary, 25. 

Mucous, 25. 

Serous, 24, 

Synovial, 24, 

Urinary, 25, 
Mesentery, 107- 

MiNERAL, Vegetable and Animal King- 
doms, Distinctions of, 11. 
MoLLUSCA, 65, 125, 160, 191, 235. 
Mouth, Structure of, 98, 104. 
Mucus, 108. 
Muscles, Anatomy of, 71. 

Histology of, 75. 

Chemistry of, 78. 

Physiology of, 79. 

Hygiene of, 84. 

Of eye, 247. 



INDEX. 



309 



Mucin, 28. 
MuscuLiN, 27. 
Myocomma, 92. 
Myolemma, 76. 
Myology, Comparative, 89. 

Nails, 257, 265. 
Nasal Duct, 249. 
Nerve-Cells, 210. 
Neeves, 79. 

Cranial, 206. 

Cutaneous, 254. 

Pneumogastric, 205. 

Spinal, 207. 

Sympathetic, 209. 
Neevous System, Anatomy of, 197. 

Histology of, 204. 

Physiology of, 213. 

Hygiene of, 222. 
Neubilema, 211. 
Neurin, 28. 

Neueology, Comparative, 232. 
Nitrogen, 27. 
Nucleated Cell, 14. 
Nuese, Duty of, 279. 
Nutritive Apparatus, 98. 

(Esophagus, 102, 105. 

Oil-Glands, 264. 

Olein, 29. 

Organ, Definition of, 13. 

Organized Bodies, Distinction of, 12. 

Osteology, Comparative, 58. 

Oxygen, 30, 175. 

Papilla, 254. 
Palate, 104. 
Pancreas, 103. 
Panceeatic Juice, 109. 
Pancreatin, 28. 
Parotid Gland, 101. 
Patella, 42. 

Peduncles, of the Brain, 200. 
Pelvis, 39. 
Pepsin, 28. 
Peptones, 109. 
Pericardium, 143, 147. 
Perichondrium, 172. 
Perimysium, 76. 
Periosteum, 46, 53. 
Peritoneum, 107. 
Perspiration, Uses of, 264. 
Pharynx, 102, 105. 
Phtsiologt, Definition of, 13. 



Pleura, 174. 

Pneumonologt, Comparative, 187. 

Poisons, and their Antidotes, 288. 

Pons Varolh, 199. 

Portal Yein, 133, 146. 

Protoplasm, 14. 

Protozoa, 66, 126. 

Proximate Constituents, Organic, 27. 

Inorganic, 26. 
Pyramids of the Brain, 199. 

Radiata, 66, 126, 236. 

Radius, 40. 

Reptiles, 58, 91, 124, 157, 188, 233. 

Respiration, Artificial, 288. 

Respiratory Organs, Anatomy of, 169. 

Histology of, 172. 

Chemistry of, 174. 

Physiology of, 176. 

Hygiene of, 181. 
Retina, 246. 
Rooms, Ventilation of, 182. 

Warming of, 184. 
Ruminants, 122. 

Sacrum, 40. 

Saxavin, 28. 

Saliva, 109. 

Scapula, 40. 

Secretion, 166. 

SiCK-RooM, 280. 

Skeleton, 35. 

Skin, 252, 263, 268. 

Sleep, 226. 

Sleeping-Room, 183. 

Sound, 262. 

Smell, Sense of, 243, 259, 266, 

Spinal Cord, 198. 

" Column, 39. 
Splanchnology, Comparative, 120. 
Spleen, 103, 107. 
Starch, 28. 
Stearin, 29. 
Sternum, 39. 
Stomach, 102, 106. 
Sweat Glands, 256. 
Synovia, 47-52. 

Tarsus, 42. 

Taste, Sense of, 241, 258, 266. 
Teeth, 100, 105, 112. 
Tendons, 77, 81. 
Thoracic Duct, 132, 
Thorax, 38. 



310 



Tibia, 40. 

Tissues, Adipose, 19. 

Areolar, 18. 

Cartilaginous, 18. 

Connective, 17. 

Fibrous, 17. 

Muscular, 20. 

Nervous, 21, 197. 

Sclerous, 20. 

Tubular, 20. 
Tongue, 104, 241. 
Touch, Sense of, 252, 263. 
Trachea, 170, 173. 
Tympanum, 251. 

Ultimate Chemical Elements, 30. 

Ulna, 40. 

Unorganized Bodies, Distinction of, 12. 

Ureter, 167. 

Uvea, 245. 



Valves of the Heart, 147. 

of the Yeins, 140. 

of the Intestines, 107. 
Veins, 145, 149. 

Hepatic, 146. 

Portal, 133, 146. 

Pulmonary, 145. 
Ventilation, 183. 
Ventricles, of the Heart, 144. 

of the Brain, 199. 
Vertebra, 39. 

Vertebrata, Definition of, 58. 
Vestibule, 250, 
ViLu, 107. 
Vocal Cords, 173. 
" Organs, 169. 

Watcher, Duty of, 281. 
Wounds, Treatment of, 282. 



KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

In using these plates, we would suggest that the pupil carefully examine 
the illustrating cuts interspersed with the text, in connection with the lesson 
to be recited. The similarity between these and the plates will enable the 
pupil to recite, and the teacher to conduct his recitation from the latter. 

Let a pupil show the situation of an organ, or part, on an anatomical out- 
line plate, and also give its structure, while other members of the class note 
all omissions and misstatements. Another pupil may give the use of that 
organ, and, if necessary, others may give an extended explanation. The 
third may explain the laws on which the health of the part depends, while 
other members of the class may supply what has been omitted. After thus 
presenting the subject in the form of topics, questions may be proposed pro- 
miscuously from each paragraph, and where examples occur in the text let 
other analogous ones be given. 

If the physiology and hygiene of a given subject have not been studied, 
confine the recitation to those parts only on which the pupil is prepared. 
When practicable, the three departments should be united; but this can only 
be done when the chapter on the hygiene has been learned, while the physi- 
ology can be united with the anatomy in all chapters upon physiology. 



PLATE I. 

A FRONT VIEW OF THE SKELETON. 

Bones of ike Head. — 7, The sphenoid bone. 8, The frontal bone. 10, The 
parietal bone. 11, The os unguis. 12, The superior maxillary bone (upper 
jaw). 13, The nasal bone. 14, The ethmoid bone. 15, The malar bone 
(cheek-bone). 16, The vomer. 17, The inferior maxillary bone (the lower 
jaw), a, Its body, h, Its ramus or branch. 18, The teeth. 

Bones of the Trunk. — 1, 1, The spinal column. 2, The sternum. 3, 3, The 
ribs. 4, The sacrum. 5, The innominatum. 

Bones of the Upper Extremities. — 19, The clavicle (collar-bone). 20, The 
scapula (shoulder-blade). 21, The humerus. 22, The ulna. 23, The radius. 
24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, The bones of the carpus (wrist). 32, 32, 32, The 
five bones of the metacarpus (the palm of the hand). 33, 33, 33, The first 



11 KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 

range of finger-bones. 34, 34, The second range of finger-bones. 35, 35, 35, 
The third range of finger-bones. 

Bones of the Loicer Extremities. — 36, The femur (thigh-bone). 37, The 
patella (knee-pan). 38, The tibia (shin-bone). 39, The fibula. 40, 40, 40, 
The bones of the tarsus (instep). 41, 41, The bones of the metatarsus 
(middle of the foot). 42, 42, The bones of the toes. 

Articulations. (Left side of the plate.) 

Ligaments of the Trunk. — 1, 1, The common spinal ligament. 2, 2, The 
intervertebral ligament (cartilage between the vertebrae). 9, 10, 11, 12, Ar- 
ticulations of the ribs with the spinal column. 13, 13, 14, 15, 16, Ligaments 
that connect the cartilages of the ribs with the sternum. 

Ligaments of the Upper Extremities. — 25, The ligament that connects the 
clavicle and sternum. 27, The ligament that connects the upper rib and 
clavicle. 28, 29, 30, Ligaments that connect the clavicle and scapula. 31, 
32, 33, 34, Ligaments of the shoulder-joint. 35, 35, 36, Ligaments of the 
elbow-joint. 37, 38, 39, 40, Ligaments of the wrist. 41, 42, 43, 44, Liga- 
ments of the fingers. 

Ligaments of the Lower Extremities. — 49, 49, Ligaments of the hip-joint. 
60, 50, Ligaments of the patella. 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, Ligaments of the knee- 
joint. 56, A large bursa mucosa. 57, The ligament of the tibia and fibula. 
68, 58, The interosseous ligament. 59, 59, Ligaments of the ankle-joint. 
60, 61, 62, Ligaments of the metatarsus. 63, 64, Ligaments of the toes. 

A, The brachial artery. B, The brachial vein. C, The radial artery. D, 
The femoral artery. E, The femoral vein. F, G, The anterior tibial artery. 



PLATE II. 
A BACK VIEW OF THE SKELETON, 

Bones of the Head. — 5, The occipital bone. 6, The parietal bone. 7, The 
temporal bone. 8, The frontal bone. 9, The sphenoid bone. 15, The malar 
bone. 16, The nasal bone. 17, The superior maxillary bone (upper jaw). 
18, The inferior maxillary bone (lower jaw). 19, The teeth. 

Bones of the Trunk. — 1, 1, The spinal column. 2, The sacrum. 3, The 
coccyx. 20, The innominatum. 4, 4, The ribs. 

Bones of the Upper Extremities. — 21, The clavicle (collar-bone). 22, The 
scapula (shoulder-blade). 23, The humerus. 24, The ulna. 25, The radius. 
26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, The bones of the carpus (wrist). 33, 33, 33, The 
bones of the metacarpus (palm of the hand). 34, 34, 34, The first range of 
finger-bones. 35, 35, The second range of finger-bones. 36, 36, 36, The 
third range of finger-bones. 

Bones of the Lower Extremities. — 37, The femur (thigh-bone). 38, The 
patella (knee-pan). 39, The tibia (shin-bone). 40, The fibula. 41, 42, 43, 
44, 45, The bones of the tarsus (instep). 46, 46, The bones of the metatarsus 
(middle of the foot). 47, 47, Bones of the toes. 



KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. Ill 

Articulations. (Left side of the plate.) 
Ligaments of the Trunk. — 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Ligaments of the spinal 

column. 14, 14, 15, 15, Ligaments that connect the ribs and spinal column. 11, 

11, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, Ligaments that connect the sacrum and innominatum. 
Ligaments of the Upper Extremities. — 27, 28, Ligaments that connect the 

clavicle and scapula. 29, The capsular ligament of the shoulder-joint. 30, 

30, Ligaments of the elbow. 31, 32, 33, 34, Ligaments of the carpus (wrist). 
Ligaments of the Lower Extremities. — 9, Tendon of the gluteus muscle. 35, 

The capsular ligament of the hip-joint. 36, 36, Ligaments of the knee-joint. 

37, The ligament that connects the tibia and fibula. 38, The interosseous 

ligament. 39, 40, Ligaments of the ankle-joint. 

PLATE III. 

A FRONT VIEW OF THE MUSCLES. 

Muscles of the Head and Neck. — 7, The sterno-mastoideus muscle. 8, The 
sterno-hyoideus muscle. 9, The omo-hyoideus muscle. 10, The trapezius 
muscle. 11, The orbicularis oculi muscle. 12, The frontal muscle. 14, The 
orbicularis oris muscle, 15, The elevator muscle of the nostrils. 16, The 
zygomatic muscle. 17, The depressor of the lower lip. 18, The depi-essor 
anguli oris muscle. 19, The triangular muscle of the nose. 20, 21, The 
aural muscles. 22, The masseter muscle. 

Muscles of the Trunk. — 2, 3, The external oblique muscles. 

Muscles of the Upi^er Extremities. — 1, The grand pectoral muscle. 3, 4, 
The serratus muscle. 23, The deltoid muscle. 24, The biceps braehialis 
muscle. 25, The coraco-braehialis muscle. 26, The anterior brachial muscle. 
27, The triceps braehialis muscle. 28, The long supinator muscle. 29, The 
external radial muscle. 30, The pronator teres muscle. 31, The anterior 
radial muscle. 32, The palmaris brevis muscle. 33, The anterior ulnar 
muscle. 35, The palmar muscle. 36, The abductor muscle of the thumb. 
37, The adductor muscle of the thumb. 38, 39, Small flexor muscles of the 
thumb. 40, The abductor muscle of the little finger. 41, 41, The lumbricales 
muscles. 61, 61, The bifurcation of the tendons of the superficial flexor 
muscle, in the fingers. 

Muscles of the Loxoer Extremities. — 42, The fascia lata muscle. 43, The 
sartorius muscle. 44, The rectus femoris muscle. 45, The vastus externus 
muscle. 46, The vastus internus muscle. 47, The internal straight muscle. 
48, The pectineus muscle. 49, The adductor muscle. 50, The psoas muscle. 
51, The tibialis anticus muscle. 52, The long extensor muscle of the great 
toe. 53, The long extensor muscle of the toes. 54, The anterior peroneal 
muscle. 55, The long lateral peroneal muscle. 56, 57, The gastrocnemii 
muscles. 58, The long flexor muscle of the great toe. 59, The short ex- 
tensor muscles of the toes. 60, The abductor muscle of the great toe. 

The figures and letters on the left side of the plate indicate the position 
of important fascise that cover the muscles and enclose the tendons. 



KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 



PLATE IV. 

A BACK VIEW OF THE MUSCLES. 

Muscles of the Head and Neck. — 4, The sterno-mastoideus muscle. 5, The 
complexus muscle. 6, The mylo-hyoideus muscle. 7, 8, The oceipito-frontalis 
muscle. 9, The masseter muscle. 10, 11, 12, The anterior, middle and pos- 
terior aural muscles. 13, The temporal muscle. 

Muscles of the Trunk. — 1, 1, The trapezius muscle. 2, The latissimus dorsi 
muscle. 3, The rhomboideus muscle. 4, The external oblique muscle. 

Muscles of the Upper Extremities. — 5, The deltoid muscle. 6, 7, The infra- 
spinatus muscle. 9, The triceps extensor muscle. 10, The internal brachial 
muscle. 11, The long supinator muscle. 12, The external radial muscle. 
13, The second external radial muscle. 14, The anconeus muscle. 15, 16, 
The extensor digitorum communis muscle. 17, The extensor carpi ulnaris 
muscle. 18, The flexor carpi ulnaris. 19, 20, The extensor ossis metacarpi 
pollicis muscles. 21, An extensor muscle of the thumb. 22, 28, Interossii 
muscles. 

Muscles of the Loicer Extremities. — 29, The gluteus maximus muscle. 30, 
The gluteus medius muscle. 31, The biceps flexor cruris muscle. 32, The 
semi-tendinosus muscle. 33, The semi-membranosis muscle. 34, The gra- 
cilis muscle. 36, The adductor muscle. 36, The vastus externus muscle. 
37, The sartorius muscle. 38, 39, The gastrocnemii muscles. 40, The long 
peroneal muscle. 41, The external peroneal muscle. 42, The long flexor 
muscle of the great toe. 43, The long extensor muscle of the toes. 44, The 
short extensor muscle of the toes. 47, The short flexor muscle of the toes. 

The figures and letters on the left side of the plate indicate the position 
of membranous fasciae which envelop the muscles and tendons. 



PLATE V. 

ORGANS OF THE THORAX AND ABDOMEN. 

Fig. 1. The Mouth and Neck. (A side view.) — 1, The upper lip. 2, The 
lower lip. 3, The upper jaw. 4, The lower jaw. 5, The tongue. 6, The 
hard palate (roof of the mouth). 7, The parotid gland. 8, The sublingual 
gland. T, The larynx. 10, The pharynx. 11, The oesophagus. 12, The 
upper portion of the spinal column, C, The spinal cord. 

The Chest and its Organs. — 9, 9, The trachea. R, The right auricle of the 
heart. L, The left auricle. 13, The left ventriole of the heart. 14, The right 
ventricle. 15, The aorta. 16, The pulmonary artery. 17, The vena cava 
descendens. 18, The right subclavian vein. 19, The left subclavian vein. 
20, The right jugular vein. 21, The left jugular vein. 22, The right carotid 
artery. 23, The left carotid artery. 24, 25, 26, The upper, middle and lower 
lobes of the right lung. 27, 28, The upper and lower lobes of the left lung. 
29, 29, 29, The diaphragm. P, P, P, P, The pleura that lines the cavity of 



KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. V 

the chest. S, S, The clavicles. 0, 0, 0, 0, The ribs. M, M, M, M, Muscles 
of the chest. 40, The thoracic duct, opening into the left subclavian vein. 

The Abdomen and its Organs. — 30, The stomach. 31, 32, The right and left 
lobe of the liver. F, The fissure that separates the two lobes. 33, The gall- 
bladder. 34, 34, The duodenum. 35, The ascending colon. 36, The trans- 
verse colon. 37, The descending colon. 38, 38, 38, 38, The small intestine. 
39, 39, The walls of the abdominal cavity turned down. 41, The spleen. 

Fig. 2. The Relation of the Lacteals and Thoracic Duct. — 1, 1, A section 
of the small intestine. 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, Mesenteric glands, through 
which the lacteals from the intestine pass. 3, Several lacteal vessels enter- 
ing the enlarged portion and commencement of the thoracic duct. 5, 5, 5, 
The thoracic duct. 6, The thoracic duct opening into the left subclavian 
vein. 7, (See 40, Fig. 1.) 8, The right subclavian vein. 9, The vena cava 
descendens. 10, 11, 11, The aorta. 12, The carotid arteries. 13, 13, The 
jugular veins. 14, The vena azagos. 15, 15, The spinal column. 16, The 
diaphragm. 

Fig. 3. The Relation of the Larynx, Trachea, Bronchia and Air-Cells. — 
1, 1, 1, An outline of the right lung. 2, 2, 2, An outline of the left lung. 3, 
The larynx. 4, The trachea. 5, The right bronchia. 6, The left bronchia. 
7, 7, 7, 7, Divisions of the right bronchia. 8, 8, 8, 8, Divisions of the left 
bronchia. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, Air-cells. 

Fie. 4. An Ideal View of a Lateral and Vertical Section of the Larynx. — 
1, 1, The superior vocal cords (ligaments). 2, 2, The inferior vocal cords. 
3, 3, The glottis. 4, 4, The ventricles of the larynx. 



PLATE VI. 

HEART, ARTERIES AND VEINS. 

Fig. 1. The Heart and Large Arteries. — 1, The right auricle of the heart. 
2, The right ventricle of the heart. 3, The left auricle. 4, The left ventricle. 
6, The pulmonary artery. 6, The aorta. 7, 7, The descending aorta. 8, 
The arteria innominata. 9, The left carotid artery. 10, The left subclavian 
artery. 56, The right subclavian artery. 

Arteries of the Neck and Head. — 15, The right carotid artery. 16, The left 
carotid artery. 17, The right temporal artery. 50, The right facial artery. 
64, The left temporal artery. 

Arteries of the Upper Extremities. — 11, 11, The left brachial artery. 12, 
The left radial artery. 13, 13, The right brachial artery. 14, The right 
radial artery. 51, The right ulnar artery. 

Arteries of the Lower Extremities. — 18, The left iliac artery. 19, The right 
iliac artery. 20, The left femoral artery. 21, The right femoral artery. 22, 
The peroneal artery. 23, The left anterior tibial artery. 24, The muscular 
artery. 25, 25, The right and left arteria profunda. 26, The right anterior 
tibial artery. 27, The right peroneal artery. 

The Veins of the Neck and Head. — 28, The vena cava descendens. 29, The 



VI KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 

left subclavian vein. 30, The right subclavian vein. 31, The right jugular 
vein. 32, The left jugular vein, 63, The right temporal vein. 55, The left 
temporal vein. 49, The right facial vein. 

Veins of the Upper Extremities. — 33, The left brachial vein. 34, The left 
radial vein. 35, The right brachial vein. 36, The right radial vein. 51, The 
right ulnar vein. 

Veins of the Lower Extremities. — 37, The vena cava ascendens. 38, The 
left iliac vein. 39, The right iliac vein. 40, The left femoral vein. 41, The 
right femoral vein. 42, The left anterior tibial vein, 43, The left peroneal 
vein. 44, The right anterior tibial vein, 45, The right peroneal vein. 46, 
46, The profunda veins. 47, The muscular veins. 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 
Intercostal arteries and veins. 

Fig. 2. The Relation of the Cavities of the Heart to the Large Blood-vessels. — 
1, The vena cava deseendens. 2, The vena cava ascendens. 3, The right 
auricle of the heart. 4, The opening between the right auricle and right ven- 
tricle. 5, The right ventricle. 6, The trieuspid valves. 7, The pulmonary 
artery. 8, 8, The branches of the pulmonary artery that pass to the right 
and left lung. 9, The semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery. 10, The 
left pulmonary veins, 21, The right pulmonary veins. 12, The left auricle. 
13, The opening between the left auricle and left ventricle. 14, The left ven- 
tricle. 15, The mitral valves. 16, 16, The aorta. 17, The semilunar valves 
of the aorta. 18, The septum between the right and left ventricle. 

Fig. 3. An Ideal View of the Heart, Arteries and Veins. — A, The right 
auricle. B, The right ventricle. C, The tricuspid valves. D, The opening 
between the right auricle and right ventricle. E, The left auricle. F, The 
left ventricle. G, The mitral valves. H, The opening between the left 
auricle and left ventricle. I, The septum between the right and left ven- 
tricle. K, The pulmonary artery. L, The semilunar valves of the pulmonary 
artery. M, M, The right pulmonary artery. N, N, The left pulmonary 
artery. 0, 0, 0, 0, O, 0, The capillary vessels of the lungs. P, P, P, The 
right pulmonary vein. Q, Q, The left pulmonary vein. R, R, The aorta. 
S, The semilunar valves of the aorta. T, T, A branch of the aorta to the 
upper extremities. U, U, U, U, A branch to the lower extremities. V, V, V, 
V, V, V, The capillary vessels at the extremity of the branches of the aorta. 
W, W, The descending vena cava. X, X, X, The ascending vena cava. 

In Figs, 1, 2, 3, the cO'Urse of the blood through the eircalatory vessels is 
indicated by arrows. 

PLATE VII. 

THE PULMONARY CIRCULATION. 

Fig. 1. — 1, The right auricle of the heart. 2, The left auricle. 3, The right 
ventricle of the heart. 4, The left ventricle. 5, The pulmonary artery. 6, 
The branch of the pulmonary artery to the left lung. 7, The branch of the 
pulmonary artery to the right lung. 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, Branches of the 
pulmonary artery in the right and left lung. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, Air-cells. 10, 



KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. Vll 

10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, Small pulmonary veins in the right and left lung. 11, 
The left pulmonary vein. 12, 12, The right pulmonary vein. 

Fig. 2. An Ideal Vteio of the Pulmonary Circulation. — 1, 1, The right lung. 
2, 2, The left lung. 3, The trachea. 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, The right bronchia. 5, 5, 
5, 5, 5, The left bronchia. 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, Air-cells, with arteries and veins 
passing around them. 7, The right auricle of the heart. 8, The right ven- 
tricle of the heart. 9, The tricuspid valves. 10, The pulmonary artery. 

11, 11, 11, 11, The right pulmonary artery. 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, The left pul- 
monary artery. 13, 13, 13, 13, The right pulmonary vein. 14, 14, 14, 14, 
The left pulmonary vein. 15, The left auricle. 16, The left ventricle. 17, 
The mitral valves. 18, The septum between the right and left ventricles. 

Fig. 3. An Ideal View of the Capillaries. — 1, 1, A branch of the pulmonary 
artery. 2, 2, A branch of the pulmonary vein. 3, 3, Capillary vessels be- 
tween the artery and vein. 

Fig. 4. An Ideal View of the Relations of the Bronchia, Air- Cells, Pul- 
monary Arteries and Veins. — 1, A bronchial tube. 2, 2, 2, Air-cells. 3, A 
branch of the pulmonary artery. 4, A branch of the pulmonary vein. 



PLATE VIII. 
THE CEREBRUM, CEREBELLUM, SPINAL CORD AND NERVES. 

I, The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum. 3, 3, The spinal cord. 4, The bra- 
chial plexus of nerves. 5, The lumbar plexus of nerves. 6, The sacral plexus 
of nerves. 7, The facial nerve. 8, 17, The radial nerve. 9, 9, 16, The ulnar 
nerve. 10, The median nerve. G, The circumflex nerve of the shoulder. 

II, 11, The great sciatic nerve. 12, The external popliteal or peroneal 
nerve. 13, 13, The posterior tibial nerve. 14, The external tibial nerve. 
15, The muscular branch of the external peroneal nerve. 18, The muscular 
branch of the sciatic nerve. P, Q, The posterior tibial nerve. 

The letters and other figures indicate minor nervous filaments distributed 
to the various muscles and the skin. 

PLATE IX. 
THE SKIN. 

Fig. 1. A Perspiratory Tube and Gland. — 1, 1, The contorted portion of 
the tubs that forms the gland. 2, 2, Two branches which unite to form the 
main duct of the gland. 3, 3, The perspiratory tube. 4, The cuticle. 5, Its 
colored portion. 6, The cutis vera (true skin). 7, 7, Fat vesicles in which 
the gland is imbedded. 

Fig. 2. A Papilla of the Skin. — 1, 1, Two papillae, formed of an artery, 
vein and nerve. 2, 2, 2, 2, Nerves forming a loop in the papillae. 3, 3, Ar- 
teries of the papillae. 4, 4, Veins of the papillae. 5, 5, A network of arteries, 
veins and nerves. 6, 6, Nerves of the skin. 8, 8, Arteries of the skin. 7, 
7, Veins of the skin. 



Vlll 



KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 



Fi6. 3. A Hair and its Oil-Glands. — 1, 1, The hair. 2, 2, The sheath of 
the hair. Z, Oil-glands that surround the bulb of the hair, the ducts of 
which open into the sheath of the hair (2, 2). 

Fig. 4. A Section of the Shin. — 1, 1, The cuticle, 2, 2, Its colored portion. 
3, 3, The papillary layer. 4, 4, A network of arteries, veins and nerves upon 
the upper surface of the cutis vera. 5, 5, 5, 5, The cutis vera (true skin). 
6, 6, 6, Hairs that originate in the cutis vera. 7, 7, 7, Oil-glands, the ducts 
of which connect with the sheath of the hair. 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, Perspira- 
tory glands and their ducts. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, Nerves of the skin. 10, 10, 10, 10, 
10, Arteries of the skin. 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, Veins of the skin. 12, 12, 12, 12, 
Papillae, or ridges of the skin. 



PLATE X. 

AN ANTERO-POSTERIOR SECTION OF THE EYE. 

Fig. 1. — 1, 1, The sclerotic coat. 2, 2, The cornea. 3, 3, The choroid coat. 
4, 4, The retina. 5, 5, The iris. 6, B, The posterior chamber of the eye that 
contains the aqueous humor. 7, 7, The anterior chamber. 8, 8, The pupil. 
9, The crystalline humor. 10, 10, The vitreous humor. 11, The optic nerve. 
12, A representation of a pen. 13, An inverted image of the pen (12) on the 
retina. 14, 14, A canal surrounding the crystalline humor. 15, 15, The 
beveled junction of the cornea and sclerotic coat. A, A perpendicular ray 
of light from the pen. B, B, Oblique rays that are refracted in passing 
through the humors of the eye. 

Fig. 2. A View of the External, Middle and Internal Ear. — 1, 1, The ex- 
ternal ear. 2, The meatus auditorius externus (the tube that connects with 
the middle ear). 3, The membrana tympani (drum of the ear). 8, 8, The 
tympanum (middle ear). 4, The malleus. 5, The incus. 6, The orbicularis. 
7, The stapes (stirrup-bone) that connects with the vestibule of the internal 
ear. 9, 9 (4, 5, 6, 7, The small bones of the middle ear), 10, 11, 12, The 
semicircular canals. 13, 13, The cochlea. 14, The auditory nerve. 15, The 
division of the auditory nerve to the semicircular canals. 16, The division 
to the cochlea, 17, 17, The Eustachian tube. 18, The chorda tympani nerve. 
19, The seventh pair (facial) nerve. 20, The styloid process of the temporal 
bone. 21, 21, 21, 21, 21, The petrous or hard portion of the temporal bone, 
in which the parts of the middle and internal ear are situated. 



PUBLICATIONS OF J. B. LIPPINCOTT &> CO. 
VALUABLE 

EDUCATIONAL WORKS 

FOR 

SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES AND COLLEGES. 



Selected from Messrs. J. B. Lippincott & Co.'s Catalogue, which 
comprises nearly Two Thousand Works in all branches of Literature, 
and may be had Gratis on application. 



Sanford's Higher Analyti 

Method of Making Arithmetical 
versal Application, without the 
TON P. Sanford, a. M. i2mo. 
" I have examined Prof. Sanford's Ana- 
lytical Arithmetic. My examination has 
not been hasty or cursory, but has been 
conducted with the utmost care, and has 
cost me no small amount of time and 
labor. I have no hesitation in saying, in 
general terms, that I have no doubt it is 
the best book of the kind in the world. 
Many attempts have been made to reduce 
the science of numbers to its last analysis, 
but so far as I know or believe this is the 
only attempt that has completely suc- 
ceeded. I am satisfied that it ought to 
supersede all other books of its class." — 
H. H. Tucker, Prest. of Mercer Univ., 
Ga., and P rest, of the Ga. Teachers' A sso. 



\cal Arithmetic; or, The 

Calculations on Principles of Uni- 
Aid of Formal Rules. By Shel- 

" Philadelphia, June 27, 1870. 
" Sanford's Analytical Arithmetic pos- 
sesses the three-fold advantage of clear 
and correct definitions, of well-illustrated 
rules, and of a judicious arrangement of 
the whole subject. This work will hold a 
high place in the estimation of educators 
who desire to combine mental training 
and the imparting of an accurate know- 
ledge of the most useful of the exact 
sciences.'' — James McClune, Prof of 
Mathematics and Astronomy in Phila- 
delj)hia Central High School. 



Sanford's Inter7nediate Analytical Arithmetic. 
By Shelton P. Sanford, A.M. i6mo. 232 pp. 50 cents. 



"The work here presented is prelim- 
inary to the Author's larger ' Analytical 
Arithmetic,' and is intended to make the 
pupil, by easy and uniform steps, expert 
m the use of figures, and at the same 
time to teach him the reason of each 
operation. A simple and an easy anal- 
ysis runs through the whole book, the de- 
sign of which is to make Arithmetic an 
intellectual exercise, instead of a series 
of mere mechanical operations. The 



Author has endeavored to teach the 
pupil to think for himself, and to accept 
nothing as true simply 'because the 
Rule says so.' Apart from the know- 
ledge of Arithmetic, the Author believes 
that the habitudes of thought engendered 
by the study of tlie Analytic System will 
prove of inestimable value to the student 
in every department of practical and pro- 
fessional life." — Extract front the Au- 
thor's Preface. 



Sanford's First Lessons in Analytical Arithmetic. 



Smith's New Arithmetic, On the Productive and 

Mental System. By R. C. Smith. i2mo. Half bound. 95 cents. 
Key, 95 cents. 



PUBLICATIONS OF J. B. LIPPING OTT &> CO. 



Liffincotfs Pronouncing Gazetteer of the World; 

or, Geographical Dictionary. New edition, thoroughly revised. 
With 10,000 new notices, and the most recent statistical informa- 
tion according to the latest Census Returns of the United States 
and Foreign Countries. Edited by J. Thomas, M. D., and 1 . 
Baldwin, assisted by several other gentlemen, i vol. Royal 
8vo. Library sheep. ^lo. 
The Gaze'ITEEr presents : 

I. A descriptive notice, with the most recent and authentic informa- 
tion respecting the countries, islands, rivers, mountains, cities 
and towns in every part of the globe. 
II. The names of all important places, both in their native and foreign 
orthography, with the pronunciation of the same — a feature never 
attempted in any other work. 

III. The classical names of all ancient places, so far as they can be 

accurately ascertained from the best authorities. 

IV. A complete etymological vocabulary of geographical names. 

V. An elaborate exposition of the principles of pronunciation of 
names in the Danish, Dutch, French, German, Greek, Hunga- 
rian, Italian, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, 
Swedish and Welsh languages. 

our American Literature." — From ELr- 
PHALET NoTT, D. D., LL.D., President 
of Um'ofi College. 

..." Your work must prove an inval- 
uable guide to the student of geogra- 
phy."— i^r^;« Dr. B. Sears, President o/ 
Brown University, 



" A work of immense labor very wisely 
directed." — Prof. C. A. Goodrich, Co- 
Editor of the Neiv Edition of Webster's 
" Unabridged Dictionary.'" 

" I consider it a desideratum alike to 
the scholar and the man of business, as 
well as a very valuable contribution to 



Rohrer''s System of Book-keeping. School Edi- 
tion. 8vo. $2. Counting-house Edition. Cloth. $3. 

The long experience of the author as a I ments of those for whom it was intended, 
practical business man and as a teacher The work is thorough and complete, em- 
of the science of book-keeping has en- | bracing full sets in every department of 
abled him to prepare a work calculated in trade and commerce, 
the highest degree to meet all the require- | 

Rofes's {yosefh) Linear Perspective. For the 

Use of Schools and Students. Fourth edition. 8vo. Cloth. 
$1.50. 



The author has endeavored to simplify 
what commonly appears intricate, by show- 
ing the reason for each process, and re- 
ducing the whole to two general rules 
which will be found sufEcient for the solu- 
tion of any problem. 



"Everyman should be able to sketch 
a road or river, to draw the outlines of 
a simple machine, a piece of household 
furniture or farming utensil, and to de- 
lineate the internal arrangement and con- 
I struction of a house.'" — Horace Mann. 



PUBLICATIONS OF J. B. LIPPINCOTT 6- CO. 



Chauvenet's Astronomy. A Manual of Sfherical 

and Practical Astronomy. Embracing the general problems of 
Spherical Astronomy, its special applications to Nautical Astron- 
omy, and the Theory and Use of Fixed and Portable Astronomical 
Instruments. With an Appendix on the Method of Least S-quares. 
Amply Illustrated with Engravings on Wood and Steel. By Wm. 
Chauvenet, Prof, of Mathematics attd Astronomy in Washingt(m 
University, St. Louis. {University edition.) 2 vols. Medium 8vo. 
Cloth. $7. 



The methods of investigation adopted 
in this work are in accordance with what 
may be called the modern school of prac- 
tical astronomy, or more distinctively the 
German school, at the head of which 
stands the unrivaled Bessel. It is an- 



other characteristic feature of modem 
spherical astronomy that the final formulae 
furnished to the practical computer are so 
presented as seldom to require accompa- 
nying precepts to distinguish the spheres 
of the unknown arcs and angles. 



Chauvenefs Geometry . A Treatise on Eleynen- 

tary Geometry, with Appendices containing a copious Collection 
of Exercises for the Student and an Introduction to Modem 
Geometry. By Wm. Chauvenet, Prof, of Mathematics and Astrojt- 
omy in Washi7igton University, St. Louis. i2mo. Cloth. $2. 



" I am glad to see at last an American 
text-book on this subject which is not from 
seventy-five to two thousand years be- 
hind the time, and w^hich, without casting 
away what is good in the old, does not 
totally exclude the brilliant geometrical 
discoveries of the present century. I 
shall recommend its adoption as a text- 
book in this University." — From Prof. 
J. W. Safford, Director of the Dear- 
born Observatory, Chicago, III. 

"At a late meeting of the Board of 
Public Schools in this city, Chauvenet's 
Elementary Geometry was adopted as a 
regular text-book in our High School 
course. Written by one who is so tho- 
roughly a master, it everj'where in its de- 
tails indicates in a suggestive form their 
bearings on the ultimate questions of An- 
alysis. In publishing a work of the high 
character that the Geometry unquestion- 
ably bears, you have laid under obligation 
to your firm the friends of mathematical 
studies throughout the land.' — From 
Wm. T. Harris, Esq., Sitperijitendent 
9/ Public Schools, St. Louis, Mo. 



. . . "The simple announcement that 
a work on Elementary Geometry was in 
preparation by Chauvenet w^ould of itself 
be sufficient to put all the best mathe- 
matical instructors in a mood of expecta- 
tion. It is my conviction that its publica- 
tion will mark an important era in the 
history of geometry, in this country at 
least. The distinguished author has ap- 
parently solved with brilliant success 
some of the difficulties which the' lead- 
ing European geometers have most deeply 
felt, and has placed the whole science upon 
a consistent logical foundation, such as it 
has scarcely known since the time of Eu- 
clid." — From George H. Howson, Se7i' 
ior Master iyi the English High School, 
Boston, Mass. 

" Prof Chauvenet is already very favor- 
ably known to students of mathematics 
by his Plane and Spherical Trigonometrj'. 
The Geometry has, in style of discussion 
and arrangement of matter, the same 
qualities which make the Trigonometry 
such an excellent text-book." — From the 
Harvard College A dvocate. 



Treatise on the Method of Least Squares ; 

or, The Application of the Theory of Probabilities in the Combi- 
nation of Observations. From the author's Manual of Spherical 
and Practical Astronomy. By Wm. Chai/venet, Professor of 
Mathe?natics and Astronomy in Washington Unvvnsity^ St Louis, 
8vo. Cloth. $1.75. 



PUBLICATIONS OF J. B. LIPPINCOTT <Sh CO. 



Chauvenefs Plane and Spherical Trigonometry 

By Wm. Chauvenet, Prof, of Mathematics attd Astrotiomy in 
Washington University, St. Louis. New and revised edition. 8vo. 
Cloth. ^1.75. 



Although this work embraces a much 
more extensive course than is contained 
in the text-books commonly used, yet the 
wants of academic and collegiate classes 
have been studiously kept in view, and 
the work has been so arranged that a 



selection of subjects of immediate import- 
ance may be readily made. The new 
elementary portions are printed in larger 
type, and are intended to form a connected 
treatise which may be studied as though 
it were in a separate volume. 



yoknson's Analytical Geometry, An Elementary 

Treatise, embracing Plane Co-ordinate Geometry, and an Intro- 
duction to Geometry of Three Dimensions. Designed as a Text- 
Book for Colleges and Scientific Schools. By Wm. Woolsey 
Johnson, B. A., Assistant Professor of Mathematics^ U. S. Naval 
Academy. i2mo. Cloth. $2. 



" This is one of the simplest as well as 
most intelligible and practical books on 
Exact Science that has come under our 
notice." — Philadelphia Press. 

" I am convinced that it is an excellent 
work, and well calculated for a text-book 
for colleges and scientific schools." — 
From Prof. N. M. Crawford, George- 
town College, Ky. 



" It is superior to all text-books of the 
same class that have as yet come under 
my observation, in clearness of expres- 
sion and well-chosen illustrations of gene- 
ral solutions." — From C. Homung, Prof, 
of Mathematics in Hillsboro'' College. 

" It is eminendy suited to the wants of 
all students." — College Courant. 



Ansted^s Physical Geography. Third Edition, 

enlarged. By D. T. Ansted, F. C. S. Extra cloth. $3. 



It is the object of the present volume 
to enable the general reader who desires 
information on the various branches of 
physical geography, or the student who 



wishes to be aware of its general scope 
as a science, to obtain an outline of the 
main facts in language as simple as pos- 
sible. 



The World we Live In ; or, First Lessons in 

Physical Geography. By D. T. Ansted, F. C. S. 75 cents. 



Carl Pitter^s Cojnparative Geography. 
lated by Rev. W. L. Gage. Cloth. $1.50. 



Trans- 



" The present volume, the bright com- 
pact crystal of Riiter's life, will pass into 
general circulation, and will be recognized 
as not merely a simple and perfectly intel- 



ligible treatise, but as a masterly applica- 
tion of the comparative method of Geog- 
raphy, and as philosophical as it is prac- 
tical and interesting." 



Lemfriere^s Classical Dictionary . A Dictionary 

of all the principal names and terms relating to the Geography, 
Topography, History, Literature and Mythology of the Ancients. 
With a Chronological Table. By J. Lempriere, D. D. 8va 

Sheep. ^^3.75. 



PUBLICATIONS OF J. B. LIPPINCOTT &> CO. 
Wickersham^s School Economy. A Treatise on 

the Preparation, Organization, Employments, Government and 
Authorities of Schools. By J. P. Wickersham, A. M., Pennsyl- 
vania State Supt. of Common Schools. Second edition. i2mo. 
Cloth. $1.50. 

SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER I. — The Preparation for the School: I. School Siies. — Conve- 
nience of Access — Suitability of Grounds and Surroundings — Healthfulness of 
the Neighborhood — Beauty of Location; II. School Grounds. — The Arrange- 
ments of School Grounds — The Advantages of School Grounds ; III. The Plana 
of Graded Schools. — The Objects of Graded Schools ; IV. School Studies. — Studies 
for Primary Schools, Grammar Schools, High Schools, Colleges; V. School 
Houses. — Size — Form — Interna! Arrangement — Recitation Rooms — The Cellar — 
Lighting — Heating — Ventilation ; VI. School Furniture. — Desks and Seats — 
Platform — Blackboards — Miscellaneous Articles ; VII. School Apparatus ; Vllf. 
School Records.— The Forms of School Records — The Objects of School Records, 

CHAPTER II. — The Organization of the School: I. Temporary Organiza- 
tion. — Seating — Times of Opening and Closing — Hours of Recesses and Inter- 
missions — Leaving Seats and Asking Questions — Whispering — General Deport- 
ment — Work; II. Permanent Organization. — Provisions Relating to Study — 
Provisions Relating to Order. 

CHAPTER III.— The Employments of the School: I. Study.— The Objects 
of Study — The Incentives to Study — Proper Incentives to Study — Incentives of 
Doubtful Propriety — Modes of Study — Characteristics of the Student ; II. Reci- 
tation. — Objects of the Recitation — Requisites of the Recitation — Methods of 
Conducting the Recitation; III. Exercise. — Unregulated Exercise — Regulated 
Exercise. 

CHAPTER IV.— Government of the School: I. School Ethics.— Tlie Classifi- 
cation of Persons engaged in the School — The Duties of Pupils — The Ofi'ences 
of Pupils; II. School Retributions. — Rewards for Good Conduct — Punishments 
•for Bad Conduct; III. School Legislation. — Means of Preventing Disorder — 
Means of Correcting Disorder — Means of Inducing Pupils to Discharge their 
Duties of their own Accord; IV. School Administration. — The Detection of 
Offenders — The Selection of Punishment for Offenders — The Manner of Inflicting 
Punishment upon Offenders. 

CHAPTER v.— The Authorities of the School: I. The Teacher.— The 
Teacher's Motive — The Teachers Qualifications — The Teacher's Duties to his 
Pupils — A Teacher's Life ; II. The General School Officers. — Superintendents — 
School Trustees — School Directors — School Committees; III. The People in 
Respect to Schools. — Of the Relations of Education in Society — Of the Ageiici'i*3 
by which an Education can be obtained. 

Hawes^s Manual of United States Surveying. 

A System of Rectangular Surveying employed in subdivi(iir:g jt^^ 
Public Lands of the United Slates, etc. Illustrated with forms, 
diagrams and maps. Constituting a comolete Tex/:- Book of Gov- 
ernment Surveying. By J. H. Hawes, Late Principal Clerk of 
Surveys in the General Land Office. Crown 8vo. Extra cloth. $3. 
This volume contains the system of 



"This book embodies in a complete 
form all the varied information so often 
sought after by county surveyors and 
others in regard to the system m use by 
the United States for surveyings, sub- 
dividing sections, running and making 
boundaries, etc." — From the New Or- 
leans Times. 



rectangular surveying employed in subdi- 
viding sections and restoring lost corners 
of the public lands. Tlie volume is com- 
pact and handsome, and will be found to 
answer its purpose admirably." — From 
the Chicago Tribune. 



PUBLICATIONS OF J. B. LIPPINCOTT 6- CO. 



Cutter's New Analytic Anatomy^ Physiology and 

Hygiene, Human and Comparative. With 200 Illustrations. By 
Calvin Cutter, M. D. For Colleges, Academies, High Schools 
and Families. Half roan. i2mo. ^1.60. 



"The above-named treatise not only 
gives rules for the preservation of health 
and the prevention of disease, but con- 
tains directions to nurses for treatment of 
sick persons ; antidotes for poison ; treat- 
ment of burns : treatment of drowned 
persons and of bleeding vessels : thus 
making it valuable for individuals and 
families as well as schools." 



" In general arrangement the present 
treatise is modeled after the former. The 
aim has been to improve the analysis ; to 
bring the Chemistry and Histology to the 
present advanced state of the sciences ; to 
make the Anatomy and Physiology con- 
cise and definite, the Hygiene plain and 
practical ; to introduce some Comparative 
Anatomy ; and to furnish illustrating cuts 
both apposite and artistic." 

Cutter's Anatomy^ Physiology and Hygiene, With 

150 Engravings. By Calvin Cutter, M. D. 456 pp. Half 

roan. i2mo. $1.70. 

" During the past ten years more than 
two hundred thousand (200,000) have been 
sold for schools. This is the only series 
of works upon the subject that is graded 
for all classes of pupils from the primary 
school to the college ; the only works 
that embrace Anatomy, Physiology and 
Hygiene for schools, and the only books 
arranged so as to be used advantage- 
ously with illustrating Anatomical Charts. 
These Charts are more valuable in teach- 
ing Physiology than outline maps are in 
giving instruction in Geography." 

Cutter's First Book in Anatomy^ Physiology and 

Hygiene. For Grammar and Select Schools. With 83 Engravings. 
By Calvin Cutter, M. D. i8o pp. i2mo. Half roan. So cts. 

Cutter's Anatomical Charts, Ten in a Set, 

Beautifully colored. Sheets, I8.50. Mounted on rollers, $14. 

" These Charts are more valuable in pupils, will send and get the Charts if he 

teacliing Physiology than outline maps has to give away the text-books to a class, 

are in giving instruction in Geography." as the Charts are worth more than a 

" A good teacher, feeling his responsi- dozen books "—Hon. Isaac T. Good- 

bility for the welfare and health of his now. 

Cutter's District School Sets, Eight in a Set, 

Beautifully colored. Sheets, ^5.50. Mounted on rollers, $11.50. 

Cutter's {Mrs.) Anatomy^ Physiology and Hy- 

giene. For schools. With 100 Engravings. By Mrs. Eunice 
P. Cutter. 132 pp. i2mo. 50 cts. 



" In the annual report of the Regents 
of the University of the State of New 
York for 1863, one hundred and fifty-two 
Colleges, Seminaries and Academies are 
reported as having classes in Physiology. 
Of these, one hundred and twenty are 
reported as using Cutter's Anatomy, 
Physiology and Hygiene. This is, prob- 
ably, a fair average of the relative use 
of the work as compared with all others 
in every part of the country for the past 
ten years." 



"This small manual is designed for 
pupils of that maturity of mind at which 
they can profitably pursue the study of 
primary arithmetic, geography or gram- 
mar. Its object is twofold : i. To teach 



the child something of the general struc- 
ture of man and animals, with the use of 
the different parts, and to suggest practical 
hints in relation to the preservation of 
health " 






9-. 



